Chemistry

Chemistry 2e is designed to meet the scope and sequence requirements of the two-semester general chemistry course. The textbook provides an important opportunity for students to learn the core concepts of chemistry and understand how those concepts apply to their lives and the world around them. The book also includes a number of innovative features, including interactive exercises and real-world applications, designed to enhance student learning. The second edition has been revised to incorporate clearer, more current, and more dynamic explanations, while maintaining the same organization as the first edition. Substantial improvements have been made in the figures, illustrations, and example exercises that support the text narrative. Changes made in Chemistry 2e are described in the preface to help instructors transition to the second edition. 3. About Chemistry......Page 11 5. About the authors......Page 15 Chapter 1. Essential Ideas......Page 19 1.1. Chemistry in Context*......Page 20 1.2. Phases and Classification of Matter*......Page 25 1.3. Physical and Chemical Properties*......Page 35 1.4. Measurements*......Page 39 1.5. Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision*......Page 46 1.6. Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results*......Page 53 Glossary......Page 61 Chapter 2. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions......Page 77 2.1. Early Ideas in Atomic Theory*......Page 78 2.2. Evolution of Atomic Theory*......Page 82 2.3. Atomic Structure and Symbolism*......Page 88 2.4. Chemical Formulas*......Page 96 2.5. The Periodic Table*......Page 103 2.6. Molecular and Ionic Compounds*......Page 107 2.7. Chemical Nomenclature*......Page 115 Glossary......Page 123 Chapter 3. Composition of Substances and Solutions......Page 139 3.1. Formula Mass and the Mole Concept*......Page 140 3.2. Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas*......Page 152 3.3. Molarity*......Page 159 3.4. Other Units for Solution Concentrations*......Page 167 Glossary......Page 173 Chapter 4. Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions......Page 183 4.1. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations*......Page 184 4.2. Classifying Chemical Reactions*......Page 190 4.3. Reaction Stoichiometry*......Page 203 4.4. Reaction Yields*......Page 208 4.5. Quantitative Chemical Analysis*......Page 213 Glossary......Page 221 Chapter 5. Thermochemistry......Page 237 5.1. Energy Basics*......Page 238 5.2. Calorimetry*......Page 248 5.3. Enthalpy*......Page 261 Glossary......Page 276 Chapter 6. Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements......Page 287 6.1. Electromagnetic Energy*......Page 288 6.2. The Bohr Model*......Page 302 6.3. Development of Quantum Theory*......Page 306 6.4. Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations)*......Page 320 6.5. Periodic Variations in Element Properties*......Page 329 Glossary......Page 338 Chapter 7. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry......Page 349 7.1. Ionic Bonding*......Page 350 7.2. Covalent Bonding*......Page 353 7.3. Lewis Symbols and Structures*......Page 359 7.4. Formal Charges and Resonance*......Page 369 7.5. Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds*......Page 373 7.6. Molecular Structure and Polarity*......Page 380 Glossary......Page 396 Chapter 8. Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding......Page 417 8.1. Valence Bond Theory*......Page 418 8.2. Hybrid Atomic Orbitals*......Page 422 8.3. Multiple Bonds*......Page 434 8.4. Molecular Orbital Theory*......Page 437 Glossary......Page 454 Chapter 9. Gases......Page 463 9.1. Gas Pressure*......Page 464 9.2. Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law*......Page 473 9.3. Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions*......Page 486 9.4. Effusion and Diffusion of Gases*......Page 498 9.5. The Kinetic-Molecular Theory*......Page 503 9.6. Non-Ideal Gas Behavior*......Page 509 Glossary......Page 513 Chapter 10. Liquids and Solids......Page 527 10.1. Intermolecular Forces*......Page 528 10.2. Properties of Liquids*......Page 540 10.3. Phase Transitions*......Page 546 10.4. Phase Diagrams*......Page 557 10.5. The Solid State of Matter*......Page 564 10.6. Lattice Structures in Crystalline Solids*......Page 571 Glossary......Page 589 Chapter 11. Solutions and Colloids......Page 605 11.1. The Dissolution Process*......Page 606 11.2. Electrolytes*......Page 611 11.3. Solubility*......Page 614 11.4. Colligative Properties*......Page 624 11.5. Colloids*......Page 643 Glossary......Page 652 Chapter 12. Kinetics......Page 661 12.1. Chemical Reaction Rates*......Page 662 12.2. Factors Affecting Reaction Rates*......Page 667 12.3. Rate Laws*......Page 670 12.4. Integrated Rate Laws*......Page 677 12.5. Collision Theory*......Page 687 12.6. Reaction Mechanisms*......Page 693 12.7. Catalysis*......Page 698 Glossary......Page 708 Chapter 13. Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts......Page 727 13.1. Chemical Equilibria*......Page 728 13.2. Equilibrium Constants*......Page 732 13.3. Shifting Equilibria: Le Châtelier’s Principle*......Page 740 13.4. Equilibrium Calculations*......Page 746 Glossary......Page 758 Chapter 14. Acid-Base Equilibria......Page 775 14.1. Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases*......Page 776 14.2. pH and pOH*......Page 780 14.3. Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases*......Page 786 14.4. Hydrolysis of Salt Solutions*......Page 803 14.5. Polyprotic Acids*......Page 811 14.6. Buffers*......Page 814 14.7. Acid-Base Titrations*......Page 823 Glossary......Page 833 Chapter 15. Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes......Page 849 15.1. Precipitation and Dissolution*......Page 850 15.2. Lewis Acids and Bases*......Page 865 15.3. Multiple Equilibria*......Page 870 Glossary......Page 878 16.1. Spontaneity*......Page 891 16.2. Entropy*......Page 895 16.3. The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics*......Page 901 16.4. Free Energy*......Page 905 Glossary......Page 915 Chapter 17. Electrochemistry......Page 925 17.1. Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions*......Page 926 17.2. Galvanic Cells*......Page 933 17.3. Standard Reduction Potentials*......Page 937 17.4. The Nernst Equation*......Page 943 17.5. Batteries and Fuel Cells*......Page 947 17.6. Corrosion*......Page 954 17.7. Electrolysis*......Page 957 Glossary......Page 963 Chapter 18. Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals......Page 973 18.1. Periodicity*......Page 974 18.2. Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals*......Page 984 18.3. Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids*......Page 988 18.4. Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals*......Page 996 18.5. Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen*......Page 1004 18.6. Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates*......Page 1011 18.7. Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen*......Page 1013 18.8. Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Phosphorus*......Page 1018 18.9. Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen*......Page 1020 18.10. Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Sulfur*......Page 1035 18.11. Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Halogens*......Page 1037 18.12. Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases*......Page 1043 Glossary......Page 1045 Chapter 19. Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry......Page 1061 19.1. Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Transition Metals and Their Compounds*......Page 1062 19.2. Coordination Chemistry of Transition Metals*......Page 1075 19.3. Spectroscopic and Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds*......Page 1090 Glossary......Page 1099 Chapter 20. Organic Chemistry......Page 1107 20.1. Hydrocarbons*......Page 1108 20.2. Alcohols and Ethers*......Page 1126 20.3. Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters*......Page 1131 20.4. Amines and Amides*......Page 1136 Glossary......Page 1147 Chapter 21. Nuclear Chemistry......Page 1157 21.1. Nuclear Structure and Stability*......Page 1158 21.2. Nuclear Equations*......Page 1165 21.3. Radioactive Decay*......Page 1168 21.4. Transmutation and Nuclear Energy*......Page 1179 21.5. Uses of Radioisotopes*......Page 1194 21.6. Biological Effects of Radiation*......Page 1199 Glossary......Page 1207 Appendix A. The Periodic Table*......Page 1219 B.1. Exponential Arithmetic......Page 1221 B.2. Significant Figures......Page 1223 B.3. The Use of Logarithms and Exponential Numbers......Page 1224 B.5. Two-Dimensional (x-y) Graphing......Page 1225 Appendix C. Units and Conversion Factors*......Page 1229 Appendix D. Fundamental Physical Constants*......Page 1231 Appendix E. Water Properties*......Page 1233 Appendix F. Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases*......Page 1239 Appendix G. Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances*......Page 1241 Appendix H. Ionization Constants of Weak Acids*......Page 1255 Appendix I. Ionization Constants of Weak Bases*......Page 1259 Appendix J. Solubility Products*......Page 1261 Appendix K. Formation Constants for Complex Ions*......Page 1265 Appendix L. Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials*......Page 1267 Appendix M. Half-Lives for Several Radioactive Isotopes*......Page 1273 Chapter 1......Page 1275 Chapter 2......Page 1276 Chapter 3......Page 1278 Chapter 4......Page 1280 Chapter 5......Page 1282 Chapter 6......Page 1284 Chapter 7......Page 1287 Chapter 8......Page 1296 Chapter 9......Page 1299 Chapter 10......Page 1302 Chapter 11......Page 1306 Chapter 12......Page 1308 Chapter 13......Page 1311 Chapter 14......Page 1314 Chapter 15......Page 1319 Chapter 16......Page 1324 Chapter 17......Page 1326 Chapter 18......Page 1327 Chapter 19......Page 1334 Chapter 20......Page 1337 Chapter 21......Page 1343 Index......Page 1347 Chemistry-cover.pdf......Page 0 Blank Page......Page 2 Chemistryis designed for the two-semester general chemistry course. For many students, this course provides the foundation to a career in chemistry, while for others, this may be their only college-level science course. As such, this textbook provides an important opportunity for students to learn the core concepts of chemistry and understand how those concepts apply to their lives and the world around them. The text has been developed to meet the scope and sequence of most general chemistry courses. At the same time, the book includes a number of innovative features designed to enhance student learning. A strength of Chemistry is that instructors can customize the book, adapting it to the approach that works best in their classroom. OpenStax College has compiled many resources for faculty and students, from faculty-only content to interactive homework and study guides Chemistry: Atoms First is a peer-reviewed, openly licensed introductory textbook produced through a collaborative publishing partnership between OpenStax and the University of Connecticut and UConn Undergraduate Student Government Association. This title is an adaptation of the OpenStax Chemistry text and covers scope and sequence requirements of the two-semester general chemistry course. Reordered to fit an atoms first approach, this title introduces atomic and molecular structure much earlier than the traditional approach, delaying the introduction of more abstract material so students have time to acclimate to the study of chemistry. Chemistry: Atoms First also provides a basis for understanding the application of quantitative principles to the chemistry that underlies the entire course. "Chemistry is designed for the two-semester general chemistry course. For many students, this course provides the foundation to a career in chemistry, while for others, this may be their only college-level science course. As such, this textbook provides an important opportunity for students to learn the core concepts of chemistry and understand how those concepts apply to their lives and the world around them. The text has been developed to meet the scope and sequence of most general chemistry courses. At the same time, the book includes a number of innovative features designed to enhance student learning. A strength of Chemistry is that instructors can customize the book, adapting it to the approach that works best in their classroom."--Openstax College website