Cognition

Front Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Dedication 5 Preface 6 Table of Contents 17 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 31 Chapter Introduction 32 A Brief History of Cognitive Psychology 34 The Origins of Cognitive Psychology 34 Wilhelm Wundt 34 Early Memory Researchers 35 William James 35 Behaviorism 36 The Gestalt Approach 37 Frederic Bartlett 37 The Emergence of Modern Cognitive Psychology 38 Factors Contributing to the Rise of Cognitive Psychology 38 The Information-Processing Approach 39 The Current Status of Cognitive Psychology 41 Cognitive Neuroscience Techniques 43 Brain Lesions 44 Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) 44 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 45 Event-Related Potential Technique 46 Additional Areas That Contribute to Cognitive Psychology 47 Artificial Intelligence 47 The Computer Metaphor 48 Pure Artificial Intelligence 49 Computer Simulation 49 The Connectionist Approach 50 Cognitive Science 51 An Overview of Your Textbook 52 Preview of the Chapters 52 Themes in the Book 54 Theme 1: The cognitive processes are active, rather than passive 54 Theme 2: The cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate 54 Theme 3: The cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information 55 Theme 4: The cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation 55 Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-downprocessing 56 How to Use Your Book Effectively 56 Chapter Outline 56 Chapter Preview 56 Opening Paragraph 56 Demonstrations 56 Individual Differences Feature 57 Applications 58 Keywords 58 In-Depth Feature 59 Section Summaries 59 End-of-Chapter Review Questions 59 Keywords List 59 Recommended Readings 59 Glossary 59 Chapter Review Questions 59 Keywords 61 Recommended Readings 61 Chapter 2: Perceptual Processes I: Visual and Auditory Recognition 63 Chapter Introduction 64 Background on Visual Object Recognition 66 The Visual System 66 Organization in Visual Perception 67 Theories of Visual Object Recognition 70 Feature-Analysis Theory 71 The Recognition-by-Components Theory 74 Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition 76 The Distinction Between Bottom-Up Processing and Top-Down Processing 76 Top-Down Processing and Reading 78 In Depth: Overactive Top-Down Processing and "Smart Mistakes'' in Object Recognition 80 Change Blindness 81 Inattentional Blindness 82 Reconciling "Smart Mistakes'' in Object Recognition 82 Face Perception 84 Recognizing Faces Versus Recognizing Other Objects 84 Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition 85 Applied Research on Face Recognition 85 Individual Differences: Face Identification in People with Schizophrenia 87 Speech Perception 89 Characteristics of Speech Perception 90 Word Boundaries 90 Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation 90 Context and Speech Perception 91 Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception 92 Theories of Speech Perception 93 The Special Mechanism Approach 93 The General Mechanism Approaches 94 Chapter Review Questions 95 Keywords 97 Recommended Readings 97 Chapter 3: Perceptual Processes II: Attention and Consciousness 99 Chapter Introduction 100 Several Kinds of Attention Processes 102 Divided Attention 102 Dichotic Listening 104 The Stroop Effect 105 Individual Differences: Eating Disorders and the Stroop Effect 107 Visual Search 107 In Depth: Saccadic Eye Movements During Reading 110 Explanations for Attention 113 Neuroscience Research on Attention 113 The Orienting Attention Network 113 The Executive Attention Network 115 Theories of Attention 116 Early Theories of Attention 116 Feature-Integration Theory 116 Consciousness 120 Thought Suppression 122 Blindsight 123 Chapter Review Questions 125 Keywords 126 Recommended Readings 126 Chapter 4: Working Memory 127 Chapter Introduction 128 The Classic Research on Working Memory (Short-Term Memory) 130 George Miller's "Magical Number Seven'' 131 Other Early Research on the Capacity of Short-Term Memory 131 The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique 132 The Recency Effect 133 Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory 134 Atkinson and Shiffrin's Model 136 The Working-Memory Approach 137 Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities 139 In Depth: Phonological Loop 140 Research on Acoustic Confusions 140 Other Uses for the Phonological Loop 141 Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop 141 Visuospatial Sketchpad 143 Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 144 Other Uses for the Visuospatial Sketchpad 144 Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 144 Central Executive 145 Characteristics of the Central Executive 145 The Central Executive and Daydreaming 146 Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive 147 Episodic Buffer 147 Working Memory and Academic Performance 148 Individual Differences: Major Depression and Working Memory 149 Chapter Review Questions 151 Keywords 152 Recommended Readings 153 Chapter 5: Long-Term Memory 155 Chapter Introduction 156 Encoding in Long-Term Memory 158 Levels of Processing 159 Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material 159 Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect 160 The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle 163 Research on Encoding Specificity 163 Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity 165 In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory 167 Memory for Items Differing in Emotion 167 Mood Congruence 170 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory 172 Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks 173 Definitions and Examples 173 Representative Research 174 Individual Differences: Anxiety Disorders and Performance on Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks 175 Individuals with Amnesia 176 Expertise 177 The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise 177 How Do Experts and Novices Differ? 178 Own-Ethnicity Bias 179 Autobiographical Memory 181 Schemas and Autobiographical Memory 182 Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring 183 Flashbulb Memories 185 Eyewitness Testimony 187 Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony 188 The Post-Event Misinformation Effect 188 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 189 The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy 192 The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy 192 The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy 193 The Potential for Memory Errors 193 Arguments for False Memory 194 Arguments for Recovered Memory 194 Both Perspectives Are at Least Partially Correct 195 Chapter Review Questions 196 Keywords 198 Recommended Readings 198 Chapter 6: Memory Strategies and Metacognition 199 Chapter Introduction 200 Memory Strategies 201 Suggestions from Previous Chapters: A Review 202 Levels of Processing 202 Encoding Specificity 204 Avoiding Overconfidence 206 Strategies Emphasizing Practice 206 The Total-Time Hypothesis 206 The Retrieval-Practice Effect 206 The Distributed-Practice Effect 206 The Testing Effect 207 Mnemonics Using Imagery 208 Mnemonics Using Organization 210 Chunking 211 Hierarchy Technique 211 First-Letter Technique 212 Narrative Technique 212 In Depth: Prospective Memory 213 Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory 214 Absentmindedness and Prospective-Memory Failures 214 Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory 215 Metacognition 218 Factors that Influence People's Metamemory Accuracy 219 Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for Individual Items 220 Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay 221 Metamemory: Estimating the Scores on Essay Questions Versus Multiple-Choice Questions 222 Individual Differences: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Metamemory 222 Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy 223 Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies 225 Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy 225 Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult 226 Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies 226 Metamemory and the Likelihood of Remembering a Specific Target 227 Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect 227 Feeling of Knowing 229 Metacomprehension 230 Metacomprehension Accuracy 230 Improving Metacomprehension 231 Chapter Review Questions 234 Keywords 235 Recommended Readings 235 Chapter 7: Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 237 Chapter Introduction 238 The Characteristics of Visual Imagery 240 In Depth: Visual Imagery and Rotation 243 Shepard and Metzler's Research 243 Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation 244 Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks 246 Visual Imagery and Distance 247 Visual Imagery and Shape 248 Visual Imagery and Interference 249 Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures 250 Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes 253 Explanations for Visual Imagery 254 The Imagery Debate 254 Neuroscience Research Comparing Visual Imagery and Visual Perception 254 Individual Differences: Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability 255 The Characteristics of Auditory Imagery 258 Auditory Imagery and Pitch 259 Auditory Imagery and Timbre 259 Cognitive Maps 260 Background Information About Cognitive Maps 261 Cognitive Maps and Distance 263 Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities 264 Distance Estimates and Category Membership 264 Distance Estimates and Landmarks 266 Cognitive Maps and Shape 266 Angles 266 Curves 267 Cognitive Maps and Relative Position 267 The Rotation Heuristic 267 The Alignment Heuristic 268 Creating a Cognitive Map 270 Franklin and Tversky's Research 270 The Spatial Framework Model 271 The Situated Cognition Approach 272 Chapter Review Questions 274 Keywords 275 Recommended Readings 275 Chapter 8: General Knowledge 277 Chapter Introduction 278 The Structure of Semantic Memory 280 Background on Semantic Memory 281 In Depth: The Prototype Approach and Semantic Memory 282 Characteristics of Prototypes 285 Levels of Categorization 286 Applying the Prototype Approach to Social Relationships 288 Conclusions About the Prototype Approach 290 The Exemplar Approach and Semantic Memory 290 A Representative Study on the Exemplar Approach 291 Comparing the Exemplar Approach with the Prototype Approach 292 Network Models and Semantic Memory 293 Anderson's ACT-R Approach 294 The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach 296 Schemas and Scripts 302 Background on Schemas and Scripts 303 How Schemas Relate to the Themes of This Book 303 Schemas Throughout Psychology 304 Schemas and Scripts 304 Identifying the Script in Advance 305 Schemas and Memory Selection 306 Schemas and Boundary Extension 311 Schemas and Memory Abstraction 312 The Constructive Approach 312 The Pragmatic Approach 313 The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction 314 Schemas and Memory Integration 315 The Classic Research on Memory Integration 315 Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes 316 Individual Differences: Country of Residence and Gender Stereotypes 319 Conclusions About Schemas 320 Chapter Review Questions 321 Keywords 323 Recommended Readings 323 Chapter 9: Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 325 Chapter Introduction 326 The Nature of Language 328 A Caution: Psycholinguistics Is English-Centered 329 A Brief History of Psycholinguistics 330 Chomsky's Approach 330 Reactions to Chomsky's Theory 332 Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning 332 Factors Affecting Comprehension 334 Negatives 334 The Passive Voice 334 Complex Syntax 335 Ambiguity 335 The ``Good-Enough'' Approach to Language Comprehension 337 In Depth: Neurolinguistics 338 Individuals with Aphasia 338 Hemispheric Specialization 340 Neuroimaging Research in Adults Without Aphasia 341 How the Mirror System Can Facilitate Communication 344 Basic Reading Processes 346 Comparing Written and Spoken Language 347 Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches 348 The Direct-Access Route 349 The Indirect-Access Route 349 Implications for Teaching Reading to Children 351 Understanding Discourse 353 Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text 354 Drawing Inferences During Reading 355 The Constructionist View of Inferences 356 Factors That Encourage Inferences 357 Higher-Level Inferences 358 Teaching Metacomprehension Skills 358 Individual Differences: Test Anxiety and Reading Comprehension 359 Language Comprehension and Latent Semantic Analysis 360 Chapter Review Questions 361 Keywords 362 Recommended Readings 363 Chapter 10: Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 365 Chapter Introduction 366 Speaking 367 Producing a Word 367 Speech Errors 368 Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors 368 Explanations for Speech Errors 369 Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition 370 Producing a Sentence 372 Producing Discourse 373 In Depth: The Social Context of Language Production 374 Common Ground 374 Directives 376 Framing 378 Writing 379 The Cognitive Components of Writing 380 Working Memory 380 Long-Term Memory 381 Planning a Formal Writing Assignment 381 Sentence Generation During Writing 382 The Revision Phase of Writing 383 Bilingualism and Second-Language Acquisition 384 Background on Bilingualism 385 The Social Context of Bilingualism 386 Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism 388 Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisition 389 Vocabulary 390 Phonology 390 Grammar 391 Individual Differences: Simultaneous Interpreters and Working Memory 393 Chapter Review Questions 396 Keywords 397 Recommended Readings 397 Chapter 11: Problem Solving and Creativity 399 Chapter Introduction 400 Understanding the Problem 402 Paying Attention to Important Information 403 Methods of Representing the Problem 404 Symbols 404 Matrices 405 Diagrams 406 Visual Images 408 Situated Cognition, Embodied Cognition, and Problem Solving 408 Situated Cognition 408 Embodied Cognition 409 Problem-Solving Strategies 410 The Analogy Approach 411 The Structure of the Analogy Approach 412 Factors that Encourage Appropriate Use of Analogies 413 The Means-Ends Heuristic 413 Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic 414 Computer Simulation 414 The Hill-Climbing Heuristic 415 Factors That Influence Problem Solving 416 Expertise 417 Knowledge Base 417 Memory 417 Problem-Solving Strategies 418 Speed and Accuracy 419 Metacognitive Skills 419 Mental Set 419 Functional Fixedness 420 In Depth: Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving 421 The Nature of Stereotype Threat 422 Research with Asian American Females 422 Research with European American Females 423 Potential Explanations 423 Insight Versus Noninsight Problems 425 The Nature of Insight 426 Metacognition During Problem Solving 426 Advice About Problem Solving 428 Creativity 428 Guilford's Classic Approach to Creativity 430 The Nature of Creativity 430 The Relationship Between Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity 431 Individual Differences: The Relationship Between Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity 431 Chapter Review Questions 433 Keywords 434 Recommended Readings 435 Chapter 12: Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making 437 Chapter Introduction 438 Deductive Reasoning 440 An Overview of Conditional Reasoning 441 Difficulties with Linguistically Negative Information 444 Difficulties with Abstract Reasoning Problems 444 The Belief-Bias Effect 445 The Confirmation Bias 446 The Standard Wason Selection Task 447 Concrete Versions of the Wason Selection Task 447 Applications in Medicine 448 Further Perspectives 448 Decision Making 449 The Representativeness Heuristic 451 Sample Size and Representativeness 452 Base Rate and Representativeness 453 The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness 455 The Availability Heuristic 457 Recency and Availability 458 Familiarity and Availability 459 The Recognition Heuristic 459 Illusory Correlation and Availability 460 The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 462 Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 464 Estimating Confidence Intervals 464 The Framing Effect 466 Background Information and the Framing Effect 467 The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect 468 In Depth: Overconfidence About Decisions 469 General Studies on Overconfidence 470 Overconfidence in Political Decision Making 470 Overconfidence About Completing Projects on Time 471 Reasons for Overconfidence 472 The Hindsight Bias 473 Research About the Hindsight Bias 473 Explanations for the Hindsight Bias 474 Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making 475 Individual Differences: Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being 476 Hypothetical Decision Making: How Should Wealth Be Distributed? 478 Chapter Review Questions 480 Keywords 481 Recommended Readings 481 Chapter 13: Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan 483 Chapter Introduction 484 The Lifespan Development of Memory 486 Memory in Infants 486 Recognizing Mother 487 Conjugate Reinforcement 487 Memory in Children 491 Children's Working Memory 491 Children's Long-Term Memory 491 Children's Memory Strategies 495 Children's Eyewitness Testimony 496 Individual Differences: Children's Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony 498 In Depth: Memory in Elderly People 500 Working Memory in Elderly People 501 Long-Term Memory in Elderly People 501 Explanations for Age Differences in Memory 504 The Lifespan Development of Metamemory 507 Metamemory in Children 507 Children's Understanding of How Memory Works 507 Children's Awareness That Effort Is Necessary 508 Children's Judgments About Their Memory Performance 509 Children's Metamemory: The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance 510 Metamemory in Elderly People 511 Beliefs About Memory 511 Memory Monitoring 511 Awareness of Memory Problems 512 The Development of Language 513 Language in Infants 514 Speech Perception During Infancy 514 Language Comprehension During Infancy 515 Language Production During Infancy 517 Adults' Language to Infants 517 Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD? 518 Language in Children 519 Words 520 Morphology 521 Syntax 521 Pragmatics 522 Chapter Review Questions 524 One Last Task 525 Keywords 525 Recommended Readings 526 Glossary 527 References 544 Name Index 618 Subject Index 630 Color Figures 643