Cognitive Aging and Brain Health

This book focuses on the application of machine learning in slope stability assessment. The contents include: overview of machine learning approaches, the mainstream smart in-situ monitoring techniques, the applications of the main machine learning algorithms, including the supervised learning, unsupervised learning, semi- supervised learning, reinforcement learning, deep learning, ensemble learning, etc., in slope engineering and landslide prevention, introduction of the smart in-situ monitoring and slope stability assessment based on two well-documented case histories, the prediction of slope stability using ensemble learning techniques, the application of Long Short-Term Memory Neural Network and Prophet Algorithm in Slope Displacement Prediction, displacement prediction of Jiuxianping landslide using gated recurrent unit (GRU) networks, seismic stability analysis of slopes subjected to water level changes using gradient boosting algorithms, efficient reliability analysis of slopes in spatially variable soils using XGBoost, efficient time-variant reliability analysis of Bazimen landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area using XGBoost and LightGBM algorithms, as well as the future work recommendation.The authors also provided their own thoughts learnt from these applications as well as work ongoing and future recommendations. Preface Contents 1: An Overview 1.1 The Importance and Significance of Brain Health 1.1.1 Brain Health and Active Aging 1.1.2 The Impact of an Unhealthy Brain on Individuals 1.2 The Current Aging Situation in China 1.2.1 Brief Overview of the Aging Population in China 1.2.2 Challenges with the Aging Population 1.3 Beijing Aging Brain Rejuvenation Initiative (BABRI) 1.4 Purpose of Writing This Book 1.5 Introductions of the Chapters 1.6 Summary References Part I: The Definition of Cognitive Aging 2: Cognitive Aging: How the Brain Ages? 2.1 The Concept of Cognitive Aging 2.1.1 Attention 2.1.2 Memory 2.1.3 Executive Function 2.1.4 Linguistic Ability 2.2 Study of Cognitive Aging: Past and Present 2.2.1 Support from the Development of Statistics 2.2.2 Trend of Differentiating Specific Domains 2.2.3 The Trend of Neuro Perspectives 2.3 Brain Aging and Its Relationship with Cognitive Aging 2.3.1 Aging in the Gray Matter 2.3.2 Aging in White Matter 2.3.3 Aging and Brain Functions 2.3.4 Aging and the Brain Network 2.4 The Significant Researches Related to Brain Aging References Part II: Aging and Cognition 3: Cognitive Decline Associated with Aging 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Age-Related Decline of Sensory Perception 3.2.1 Age-Related Vision Impairment 3.2.2 Age-Related Hearing Loss and Balance Impairment 3.2.3 Age-Related Olfaction Loss and Anosmia/Taste 3.2.4 Age-Related Loss of Time and Space Perception 3.2.5 Summary 3.3 Age-Related Memory Decline 3.3.1 Sensory Memory 3.3.1.1 Iconic Memory 3.3.1.2 Echoic Memory 3.3.2 Short-Term Memory and Working Memory 3.3.2.1 Short-Term Memory 3.3.2.2 Working Memory 3.3.3 Long-Term Memory 3.3.3.1 Episodic Memory 3.3.3.2 Autobiographical Memory 3.3.3.3 Semantic Memory 3.3.3.4 Implicit Memory 3.3.3.5 Procedural Memory 3.3.4 Summary 3.4 Age-Related Decline of Attention and Executive Function 3.4.1 Inhibitory Control 3.4.2 Attentional Control 3.4.3 Cognitive Flexibility 3.4.4 Working Memory 3.4.5 Attention 3.5 Age-Related Decline of Language and Reasoning 3.5.1 Language 3.5.2 Reasoning 3.5.3 Summary 3.6 Age-Related Decline of Spatial Navigation 3.6.1 Neural Basis of Spatial Navigation 3.6.2 Aging and Spatial Navigation 3.6.3 Virtual Reality Technology and Space Navigation 3.6.4 Summary 3.7 Conclusion References 4: The Overview of Cognitive Aging Models 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Behavioral Models of Cognitive Aging 4.2.1 Psychological Theories of Cognitive Aging 4.2.1.1 Sensory Deficit Theory 4.2.1.2 Processing Speed Theory 4.2.1.3 Working Memory Theory 4.2.1.4 Inhibition Deficit Theory 4.2.1.5 Executive Decline Hypothesis 4.2.1.6 Summary 4.2.2 Educational Theories of Cognitive Aging 4.2.2.1 The Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition (STAC) 4.2.2.2 A Life Course Model of the Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition (STAC-R) 4.2.3 Biological Theories of Cognitive Aging 4.2.3.1 Stochastic Theories 4.2.3.2 Non-Stochastic Theories/Development–Genetic Theories 4.2.3.3 Evolutionary Theories 4.2.3.4 The Antagonistic Pleiotropy Theory 4.2.3.5 The Disposable Soma Theory 4.2.4 Sociological Theory of Cognitive Aging 4.2.5 Summary 4.3 Neural Mechanism Models of Cognitive Aging 4.3.1 Cognitive and Brain Reserve Theory 4.3.2 “Last in, first out” Theory 4.3.3 Posterior–Anterior Shift in Aging (PASA) 4.3.4 Hemispheric Asymmetry Reduction in Older Adults (HAROLD) 4.3.5 Compensation-Related Utilization of Neural Circuits Hypothesis (CRUNCH) 4.3.6 Summary References Part III: Sociological Studies of Cognitive Aging 5: Emotional and Affective Disorders in Cognitive Aging 5.1 Emotional and Affective Disorders in the Elderly 5.1.1 Emotional Function in the Elderly 5.1.2 Common Emotional and Affective Disorders in the Elderly 5.1.2.1 Late-Life Depression 5.1.2.2 Anxiety Disorder 5.2 Effects of Emotional and Affective Disorders on Cognitive Aging 5.2.1 Effects of Common Emotional and Affective Disorders on Cognitive Aging in the Elderly 5.2.1.1 Late-Life Depression 5.2.1.2 Anxiety Disorder 5.2.2 Possible Underlying Mechanism of the Effects of Emotional Disorders on Cognitive Aging 5.2.2.1 Vascular Disease 5.2.2.2 Cortisol–Hippocampal Pathway 5.2.2.3 Amyloid-β Plaque Formation 5.2.2.4 Inflammatory Changes 5.2.2.5 Nerve Growth Factors References 6: The Mechanism of Socioeconomic Status Effects on Cognition 6.1 History and Definition 6.1.1 The Origin and Development of Socioeconomic Status 6.1.2 Indicators and Measurements of Socioeconomic Status 6.2 The Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Cognition in the Elderly 6.3 The Factors between Socioeconomic Status and Cognition 6.3.1 Functional and Structural Brain 6.3.2 Environmental Factors 6.3.3 Decision-Making Process: A New Perspective References Part IV: Neuroimaging Studies of Brain Aging 7: The Aging Patterns of Brain Structure, Function, and Energy Metabolism 7.1 Cortical Gray Matter Atrophy in Aging 7.1.1 Normal Atrophy of Cortical Gray Matter with Aging 7.1.2 The Pathological Processes Affect the Atrophy of Gray Matter during Aging 7.1.3 Protective Factors for Gray Matter Atrophy 7.2 Age-Related Changes in White Matter 7.2.1 Main Types of Age-Related White Matter Lesions 7.2.1.1 White Matter Atrophy 7.2.1.2 White Matter Hyperintensity 7.2.2 Differences in Brain Regions of White Matter Age-Related Damage 7.2.3 The Relationship between Changes in White Matter and Cognitive Function 7.3 Electroencephalogram and Magnetoencephalogram Recordings during Aging 7.3.1 Electroencephalogram Recordings 7.3.2 Magnetoencephalogram Recordings 7.4 Functional MRI Studies of Brain Activation in Aging 7.4.1 Changes in Task-Related Brain Activation Change during Aging 7.4.1.1 Memory Task fMRI Studies 7.4.1.2 Motor Task fMRI Studies 7.4.1.3 Other Task-Based fMRI Studies 7.4.2 The Posterior–Anterior Shift in Aging (PASA) Theory 7.5 Brain Amyloid and Tau Accumulation in Normal Aging 7.5.1 Amyloid-β in the Aging Brain 7.5.2 Tau in the Aging Brain References 8: Brain Network Organization and Aging 8.1 Brain Structural Morphology Network Based on Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 8.2 Changes in White Matter Structural Networks in the Brain During Cognitive Aging 8.2.1 White Matter Structural Networks in the Brain Change with Aging 8.2.2 The Effect of Brain Changes in White Matter Structural Networks Changes and Brain Function 8.3 Functional Brain Network 8.3.1 Functional Network Studies Based on fMRI 8.3.1.1 Resting-State fMRI and Functional Brain Network 8.3.1.2 Aging of the Default Mode Network 8.3.1.3 Other Networks Involved in Aging 8.3.1.4 Functional Brain Network Studies Using Graph Theory 8.3.2 Functional Brain Network Based on Other Neuroimaging Techniques References Part V: Neurobiological Mechanism of Brain Aging 9: Biomolecular Markers of Brain Aging 9.1 Genomic Instability 9.1.1 DNA Damages 9.1.2 RNA Alterations 9.2 Proteostasis 9.2.1 Autophagy 9.2.2 The Ubiquitin–Proteasome System (UPS) 9.2.3 The Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) in the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) 9.3 Calcium Homeostasis 9.4 Neural Regulators 9.4.1 Neural Transmitter 9.4.2 Neuropeptide 9.4.3 Neurotrophic Factors 9.5 Mitochondrial Dysfunction References 10: Neurobiological Mechanisms of Cognitive Decline Correlated with Brain Aging 10.1 Loss of Neural Circuits and Synaptic Plasticity 10.1.1 Synaptic Structure Deficit 10.1.2 Decreased Synaptic Plasticity 10.2 White Matter Abnormal Alterations 10.2.1 Vascular Pathology Changes 10.2.2 Demyelination 10.3 Neurovascular Unit Injury References Part VI: Clinical Studies of Abnormal Aging 11: The Early Stage of Abnormal Aging: Cognitive Impairment 11.1 The Syndrome of Cognitive Impairment 11.1.1 Subjective Cognitive Impairment 11.1.2 Mild Cognitive Impairment 11.2 Risk and Protective Factors for Cognitive Impairment 11.2.1 Cardiovascular Risk Factors 11.2.1.1 Diabetes, Mid-Life Hypertension, and Mid-Life Obesity 11.2.2 Genetic Factors 11.2.3 Lifestyle Risk Factors 11.2.3.1 Smoking 11.2.3.2 Diet 11.2.3.3 Physical Activity 11.2.4 Other Risk Factors 11.2.4.1 Years of Formal Education 11.2.4.2 Traumatic Brain Injury 11.2.4.3 Sleep Disorders 11.2.4.4 Hearing Loss 11.2.4.5 Mental Disorder References 12: The Late Stage of Abnormal Aging: Dementia 12.1 Hypotheses of the Pathogenesis of Dementia 12.1.1 Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis 12.1.2 Hyperphosphorylated Tau Protein 12.1.3 The Role of Inflammation 12.1.4 Synaptic Pathology 12.1.5 Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Stress 12.1.6 The Vascular Hypothesis 12.1.7 The Cholesterol Hypothesis 12.1.8 Hypothesis of Metal Accumulation in the Brain 12.1.9 Hypothesis of Impaired Insulin Signaling 12.1.10 Cell Cycle Hypothesis 12.1.11 Cholinergic Hypothesis 12.2 Status and Progress of Drug Therapy 12.2.1 Current Status of Drug Therapy 12.2.1.1 Improving Cognitive Function Cholinesterase Inhibitors Memantine 12.2.1.2 Control of Mental Symptoms Antipsychotics for Agitation Antihypertensive Drugs 12.2.2 Progress in AD Clinical Trials 12.2.2.1 Anti-Amyloid Agents Decreasing Aβ Production Prevention of Aβ Aggregation Increasing Aβ Clearance BACE1 Inhibitor 12.2.2.2 Aβ Vaccine 12.2.2.3 Tau Vaccine 12.2.2.4 Tau-Aggregation Inhibitor References Part VII: Cognitive Impairment Intervention 13: Cognitive Training Effect and Imaging Evidence 13.1 Cognitive Training Approaches 13.1.1 Traditional Cognitive Training Approaches 13.1.2 A Popular Cognitive Training Approach: Computer-Based Cognitive Training 13.1.3 Newly Developed Cognitive Training Approach: VR-Based Cognitive Training 13.2 The Effect of Cognitive Training 13.2.1 The Effect of Different Cognitive Domains 13.2.1.1 Memory 13.2.1.2 Executive Function 13.2.1.3 Processing Speed 13.2.1.4 Visuospatial Function 13.2.1.5 Language 13.2.2 The Effect of Different Training Approaches 13.2.3 The Effect on Groups with Different Cognitive Levels 13.2.3.1 Cognitive Maintenance in Older Adults with Normal Cognitive Function 13.2.3.2 Cognitive Rehabilitation for Older Adults with Cognitive Impairment 13.3 The Brain Mechanism Underlying Cognitive Training 13.3.1 Structural Plasticity of the Brain 13.3.1.1 The Plasticity of Brain Function References 14: Lifestyle Adjustment: Influential Risk Factors in Cognitive Aging 14.1 Contribution of Diet to Cognitive Function 14.1.1 Mediterranean Diet Benefits 14.1.2 Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (Omega-3 PUFAs) Benefits 14.1.3 Negative Impacts of Oil, Salt, Sugar, and Fat on Cognition 14.2 Exercising Benefits 14.2.1 Physical Exercising: A Protective Factor 14.2.2 Mental Exercising: A Protective Factor 14.3 Habits and Aging 14.3.1 Smoking Habits 14.3.2 Alcohol Consumption 14.3.3 Social Activities 14.3.4 Learning Ability 14.4 Sleep and Aging 14.4.1 Negative Impacts of Insomnia 14.4.2 Excessive Daytime Sleepiness 14.5 Mental Health and Cognition 14.5.1 Negative Impacts of Loneliness 14.5.2 Negative Impacts of Depression 14.5.3 Negative Impacts of Anxiety References This book reviews the research trends of cognitive aging and brain health from full-scale. It not only contains cognitive aging's neurophysiological mechanism, clinical research and intervention measures, but also covers cognitive aging's social psychological mechanism, such as the relation between old people's motion, socioeconomic status and the cognitive aging. Through decades of research and practice, the views towards the cognitive aging process havebeen transferred from coping with cognitive decline to promoting cognitive ability. This book provides with the latest research findings and in-depth opinions of the cognitive aging and brain health, assisting researchers to grasp the theories, practice and trends of this field, and guide health-care workers to carry out the treatment and nursing for the aged.