Commercial Orchids

Orchids account for a large share of global floriculture trade both as cut flowers and as potted plants, and are estimated to comprise around 10% of international fresh cut flower trade. The average value of fresh cut orchids and buds trade during 2007-2012 was US$ 483 million. In 2012, there are more than 40 countries exporting orchids and 60 countries importing orchids around the world, with the total size of the global trade equaling US$ 504 million. In India, about 1350 species belonging to 186 genera represent approximately 5.98% of the world orchid flora and 6.83% of the flowering plants in India. The publication on "Commercial Orchids" is presented in 15 interesting chapters vividly highlighting the global orchid industry, bio-diversity, conservation and bio-piracy of genetic resources, morphological and molecular characterization of valuable species, breeding approaches for improved genotypes, production of quality planting materials, physiology of tropical and temperate orchids, climate change and its impact on orchid productivity, production technology of commercial epiphytic orchids for cut flower, production technology of commercial terrestrial orchids for cut flower, orchids for pot culture, hanging baskets and tree mounting, medicinal and aromatic orchids, post-harvest management of cut flowers of commercial orchids, value addition and marketing. _GoBack _GoBack 1 Introduction 2 Global Orchid Industry 2.1 Global Orchid Trade 2.2 Trend in Growth 2.2.1 Cymbidium 2.2.2 Dendrobium 2.2.3 Phalaenopsis 2.2.4 Other Tropical Orchids 3 Biodiversity, Conservation and Bio-piracy of Genetic Resources in India 3.1 Region Wise Distribution of Orchids 3.1.1 Eastern Himalayas and North-Eastern India 3.1.1.1 Endemic Orchids 3.1.2 North-Western Himalayas 3.1.3 Peninsular India 3.1.4 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 3.2 Conservation of Orchid Genetic Resources 3.2.1 Legislative Measures of Conservation 3.2.2 In Situ Conservation 3.2.2.1 Biosphere Reserve 3.2.2.2 National Parks 3.2.2.3 Sacred Groves 3.2.2.4 Gene Sanctuary 3.2.2.5 Individual Trees 3.2.3 Ex situ Conservation 3.2.3.1 Field Gene Banks 3.2.3.2 Botanical Gardens 3.2.3.3 Herbal Gardens 3.2.3.4 Orchid Seed Gene Bank 3.2.3.5 In vitro Conservation 3.2.3.6 Cryo-preservation 3.3 Bio-piracy 3.3.1 Legal Regime Pertaining to Biodiversity and Bio-piracy 3.3.1.1 International Law 3.3.1.2 Convention on Biological Diversity (1994) 3.3.1.3 Cartagena Protocol (2003) 3.3.1.4 Nagoya Protocol (2010) 3.3.1.5 CITES 1972 3.3.2 Traditional Knowledge (TK) Bio-piracy 3.3.2.1 Collection and Use 3.3.2.2 Patenting 3.3.3 Genetic Resource Bio-piracy 3.3.3.1 Collection and Use 3.3.3.2 Patenting 3.3.4 Measures of Bio-piracy in Some Orchids 4 Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Valuable species 4.1 Cymbidium, Dendrobium and Vanda 4.1.1 Subject 4.1.2 Plant Material Required 4.1.3 Conduct of Tests 4.1.4 Methods and Observations 4.1.5 Grouping of Varieties 4.1.6 Characteristics and Symbols 4.1.7 Explanations on the Table of Characteristics 4.2 Phalaenopsis (PVJ, Nov, 2012) 4.2.1 Subject 4.2.2 Plant Material Required 4.2.3 Conduct of Test 4.2.4 Methods and Observations 4.2.5 Grouping of Varieties 4.2.6 Characteristics and Symbols 4.2.7 Explanation on the Table of Characteristics 4.2.7.1 Guidelines for Recording the Observations of Vegetative and Flowering Characteristics 4.2.7.2 Explanation for Individual Characteristics 4.3 Cattleya Lindl. (PVJ, Nov, 2012) 4.3.1 Subject 4.3.2 Plant Material Required 4.3.3 Conduct of Test 4.3.4 Methods and Observations 4.3.5 Grouping of Varieties 4.3.6 Characteristics and Symbols 4.3.7 Explanation on the Table of Characteristics 4.3.7.1 Guidelines for Recording the Observations of Vegetative and Flowering Characteristics 4.3.7.2 Explanation for Individual Characteristics 4.4 Molecular Characterization of Valuable Species 4.4.1 Isozyme Analysis 4.4.2 DNA Finger Printing 4.4.2.1 Classical Hybridization Based Finger Printing 4.4.2.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Based Finger Printing 4.4.2.2.1 RAPD (Randomly Amplified Polymorhic DNA) 4.4.2.2.2 SPAR (Single SSR Primer Amplification Reaction) 4.4.2.2.3 DAF (DNA Amplification Fingerprinting) 4.4.2.2.4 AP-PCR (Arbitrary Primed Polymerase Chain Reaction) 4.4.2.2.5 RAMPO (Randomly Amplified Microsatellite Polymorphisms) 4.4.2.2.6 AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) 4.4.2.2.7 ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeat Markers) 4.4.2.2.8 Mitochondrial Analysis 4.4.2.3 Uses of DNA Finger Printing 5 Breeding Approaches for Improved Genotypes 5.1 Cytogenetics 5.2 Pollination and Fertilization 5.3 Natural Hybridization 5.4 Artificial Hybridization 5.4.1 Bigeneric Hybrids 5.4.2 Trigeneric Hybrids 5.4.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids 5.4.4 Pentageneric Hybrids 5.4.5 Hexageneric Hybrids 5.5 Mutagenesis 5.6 Breeding Objectives 5.7 Selection of Parents 5.8 Compatibility Analysis 5.9 Breeding of Hybrids 5.9.1 Cattleya 5.9.2 Cymbidium 5.9.3 Dendrobium 5.9.4 Odontoglossum 5.9.5 Oncidium 5.9.6 Paphiopedilum 5.9.7 Phalaenopsis 5.9.8 Vanda 5.10 Polyploidy Breeding 5.11 Genetic Engineering 6 Production of Quality Planting Materials 6.1 Division 6.2 Back Bulbs 6.3 Cuttings 6.4 Air layering 6.5 Keiki 6.6 Aerial Shoots 6.7 Tubers 6.8 Tissue Culture 6.8.1 Shoot Tip Culture 6.8.2 Meristem –tip Culture 6.9 Seed Culture 6.9.1 Flasking and Reflasking of Protocorms 6.9.2 Composting and Repotting Seedlings 6.10 Production of Disease Free Planting Materials Through Micro-Propagation 7 Physiology of Temperate and Tropical Orchids 7.1 Leaves 7.2 Stem and Roots 7.2.1 Monopodial 7.2.2 Sympodial 7.2.3 Terrestrial orchids 7.3 Flower 7.4 Pollination 7.5 Fruits and Seeds 7.6 Photosynthesis 7.6.1 C3-Photosynthesis 7.6.2 C4-Photosynthesis: 7.6.3 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) 7.7 CO2 Enrichment and Orchid Growth 7.7.1 Practical Aspects of CO2 Enrichment 7.8 Growth Physiology Stages in Cymbidium Orchids 7.8.1 Stage I: Flower Bud Initiation in the New Growth 7.8.2 Stage II: Flower Spike Initiation 7.8.3 Stage III: Spike Elongation and Blooming 7.9 Conclusions & Extensions 7.10 Orchid Pseudobulbs – A Genuine Importance in Orchid Growth and Survival 7.10.1 Pseudobulbs – As Water Storage Organs 7.10.2 Pseudobulbs – As Mineral Storage Organs 7.10.3 Pseudobulb Photosynthesis 7.10.4 Pseudobulbs – as Carbohydrate Storage Organs 7.10.5 The Absence of a ‘Flag’ Leaf’ – an Apparent Anomaly Due to the Pseudobulb 7.10.6 Pseudobulbs and Myrmecophily 8 Climate Change and its Impact on Orchid Productivity 8.1 Impact of Climate Change (Mitchell and Tanner, 2006) 8.1.1 Agriculture 8.1.2 Water Resources 8.1.3 Forests 8.1.4 Biodiversity 8.1.5 Weather Extremes 8.1.6 Sea Levels and Coastal Areas 8.1.7 Human Population 8.1.8 Human Health 8.2 Actions 8.3 Challenges 8.3.1 Biodiversity and Conservation 8.3.2 Genetic Improvement 8.3.3 Frontier Science Technologies In Orchid Research and Development 8.3.4 Management of Natural Resources 8.3.5 Post Harvest and Value Addition 8.3.6 Bio-Risk Management 8.3.7 Policies 8.3.8 Transfer of Technology 8.4 Impact Assessment 9 Production Technology of Commercial Epiphytic Orchids for Cut flowers 9.1 Cymbidium (Orchidaceae) 9.1.1 Introduction 9.1.2 Botanical Description 9.1.3 Classification 9.1.4 World Scenario 9.1.5 Importance and Uses 9.1.5.1 Cut flowers 9.1.5.2 Potted Plants 9.1.5.3 Hanging Baskets 9.1.5.4 Herbal Medicines 9.1.5.5 Stylish Packaging 9.1.6 Varieties (De, 2014) 9.1.7 Growing Requirements 9.1.7.1 Light 9.1.7.2 Temperature 9.1.7.3 Propagation 9.1.7.4 Watering 9.1.7.5 Relative Humidity 9.1.7.6 Air Circulation 9.1.7.7 Feeding 9.1.7.8 Potting and Repotting 9.1.7.9 Planting 9.1.7.10 Training 9.1.7.11 Harvest 9.1.8 Insects Pests and Diseases 9.1.8.1 Insect Pests 9.1.8.2 Diseases 9.1.9 Post-harvest Management 9.1.9.1 Stage of Harvest 9.1.9.2 Grading 9.1.9.3 Packing 9.1.9.4 Storage 9.1.9.5 Floral Preservatives 9.2 Dendrobium (Orchidaceae) 9.2.1 Introduction 9.2.2 Botanical Descriptions 9.2.3 Importance and Uses 9.2.4 Hybrids (De, 2014) 9.2.5 Growth and Physiology 9.2.6 Cultivation 9.2.6.1 Temperature 9.2.6.2 Light 9.2.6.3 Propagation 9.2.6.4 Atmosphere 9.2.6.5 Fertilization 9.2.6.6 Potting Mixture 9.2.6.7 Watering and Humidity 9.2.6.8 Repotting 9.2.6.9 Application of Growth Regulators 9.2.7 Post-harvest Management 9.2.7.1 Harvest 9.2.7.2 Pre-cooling 9.2.7.3 Pulsing 9.2.7.4 Bud Opening 9.2.7.5 Preservatives 9.2.7.6 Grading 9.2.7.7 Packaging 9.2.7.8 Storage 9.2.8 Value addition 9.2.8.1 Tinting 9.2.8.2 Preparation of Bouquet 9.3 Phalaenopsis (Orchidaceae) 9.3.1 Introduction 9.3.2 Botanical Description 9.3.3 Importance and Uses 9.3.4 Hybrids (De, 2014) 9.3.4.1 Bigeneric Hybrids 9.3.4.2 Trigeneric Hybrids 9.3.4.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids 9.3.4.4 Pentageneric Hybrids 9.3.4.5 Natural Hybrids 9.3.4.6 Inter-specific Hybrids 9.3.4.7 Inter-varietal Hybrids 9.3.4.8 Variety-species Hybrids 9.3.5 Climatic Requirements 9.3.5.1 Light 9.3.5.2 Temperature 9.3.5.3 Humidity 9.3.5.4 Ventilation and Air Circulation 9.3.6 Growth and Flowering 9.3.6.1 Vegetative Phase 9.3.6.2 Flowering Phase 9.3.7 Propagation 9.3.7.1 Division/ Cuttings 9.3.7.2 Tissue Culture 9.3.8 Cultivation 9.3.8.1 Plant Material 9.3.8.2 Potting 9.3.8.3 Containers 9.3.8.4 Potting Media 9.3.8.5 Repotting 9.3.8.6 Watering 9.3.8.7 Fertilizers: 9.3.8.8 Flower Production 9.3.8.8.1 Premature Flowering 9.3.8.9 Training of Spike 9.3.8.10 Harvest and Yield 9.3.9 Post-harvest Management 9.3.9.1 Vase life 9.3.9.2 Pulsing 9.3.9.3 Storage 9.3.9.4 Packaging 9.4 Cattleya (Orchidaceae) 9.4.1 Introduction 9.4.2 Botanical Description 9.4.3 Importance and Uses 9.4.4 Hybrids (De, 2014) 9.4.4.1 Parents for Large Blue Cattleya Hybrids 9.4.4.2 Bigeneric Hybrids 9.4.4.3 Trigeneric Hybrids 9.4.4.4 Tetrageneric Hybrids 9.4.4.5 Intervarietal Hybrids 9.4.4.6 Inter- specific Hybrids 9.4.4.7 Variety Species Hybrids 9.4.4.8 Blue Cattleya Hybrids 9.4.5 Cultivation 9.4.5.1 Temperature 9.4.5.2 Light 9.4.5.3 Water and Humidity 9.4.5.4 Feeding 9.4.5.5 Potting Mix and Repotting 9.4.6 Pests and Diseases 9.4.7 Post-harvest Management 9.4.7.1 Stage of Harvest 9.4.7.2 Storage 9.4.7.3 Vase life 9.4.7.4 Preservatives 9.5 Oncidium (Orchidaceae) 9.5.1 Introduction 9.5.2 Botanical Description 9.5.3 Species & Hybrids (De, 2014) 9.5.3.1 Bigeneric Hybrids 9.5.3.2 Trigeneric Hybrids 9.5.3.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids 9.5.3.4 Interspecific Hybrids 9.5.3.5 Inter-varietal Hybrids 9.5.3.6 Variety-Species Hybrids 9.5.3.7 Colmanara Hybrids 9.5.3.8 Medicinal Oncidium 9.5.4 Cultivation 9.5.4.1 Temperature 9.5.4.2 Light 9.5.4.3 Water and Humidity 9.5.4.4 Feeding 9.5.4.5 Potting Mix and Repotting 9.5.5 Pests and Diseases 9.5.6 Post-harvest Management 9.5.6.1 Stage of Harvest 9.5.6.2 Storage 9.5.6.3 Vase life 9.5.6.4 Preservatives 9.6 Paphiopedilum (Orchidaceae) 9.6.1 Introduction 9.6.2 Botanical Description 9.6.3 Hybrids 9.6.3.1 Natural Hybrids 9.6.3.2 Bigeneric Hybrids 9.6.3.3 Parents for Primary Hybrids 9.6.3.4 Parents for Mottle Leaf Hybrids 9.6.3.5 Parents for Maudiae Hybrids 9.6.3.6 Parents for Smallest Paphiopedilums 9.6.3.7 Parents for Multi-stemmed Flower 9.6.3.8 Multi-floral or Strap Leafed Paphiopedilums 9.6.3.9 Fragrant Slipper Orchids 9.6.3.10 Hybrid Phragmipediums 9.6.3.11 Interspecific hybrids 9.6.3.12 Intervarietal Hybrids 9.6.3.13 Species-varietal Hybrids 9.6.4 Cultivation 9.6.4.1 Light 9.6.4.2 Ventilation and Humidity 9.6.4.3 Temperature 9.6.4.4 Containers and Compost 9.6.4.5 Repotting 9.6.4.6 Watering 9.6.4.7 Fertilization 9.6.4.8 Propagation 9.6.5 Pest and Diseases 9.6.6 Post-Harvest Management 9.7 Vanda (Orchidaceae) 9.7.1 Introduction 9.7.2 Botanical Description 9.7.3 Hybrids (De, 2014) 9.7.3.1 Natural Hybrids 9.7.3.2 Bigeneric Hybrids 9.7.3.3 Trigeneric Hybrids 9.7.3.4 Tetrageneric Hybrids 9.7.3.5 Pentageneric Hybrids 9.7.3.6 Vanda Hybrids 9.7.3.7 Aranda Hybrids 9.7.3.8 Ascocenda Hybrids 9.7.3.9 Mokara Hybrids 9.7.3.10 Kagawara Hybrids 9.7.3.11 Vascostylis Hybrids 9.7.3.12 Aeridovanda Hybrids 9.7.4 Cultivation 9.7.4.1 Light 9.7.4.2 Temperature 9.7.4.3 Propagation 9.7.4.4 Watering 9.7.4.5 Fertilization 9.7.4.6 Potting Media 9.7.5 Insect -pests and Diseases 9.7.6 Post-harvest Management (Bhattacharjee and De, 2005) 9.7.6.1 Stage of harvest: 9.7.6.2 Storage 9.7.6.3 Vase life 9.7.6.4 Preservatives 10 Production Technology of Commercial Terrestrial Orchids for Cut Flowers 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Calanthe 10.2.1 Genetic Resources (De, 2011) 10.2.2 Hybrids 10.2.2.1 Inter-specific Hybrids 10.2.2.2 Bigeneric Hybrids 10.2.2.3 Inter-varietal Hybrids 10.2.3 Uses 10.2.4 Cultivation 10.3 Eulophia 10.3.1 Genetic Resources 10.3.2 Hybrids 10.3.3 Medicinal Eulophia 10.3.4 Cultivation 10.4 Phaius 10.4.1 Genetic Resources 10.4.2 Commercial Hybrids 10.4.3 Herbal Medicines 10.4.4 Cultivation 10.5 Pleione 10.5.1 Genetic Resources 10.5.2 Hybrids 10.5.2.1 Inter-specific Hybrids 10.5.2.2 Inter-varietal Hybrids 10.5.2.3 Variety – species Hybrids 10.5.3 Medicinal Pleione 10.5.4 Cultivation 11 Orchids for Pot Culture/ Hanging Baskets/ Tree Mounting 11.1 Agronomic Management 11.1.1 Humidity 11.1.2 Light 11.1.3 Temperature 11.1.4 Atmosphere 11.1.5 Propagation 11.1.6 Pots and Potting Media 11.1.7 Watering 11.1.8 Nutrition 11.1.9 Repotting 11.2 World Production Scenario of Potted Orchids 11.3 Description and Culture 11.3.1 Aerides 11.3.1.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.1.2 Intergeneric Hybrids 11.3.1.3 Common Commercial Hybrids 11.3.1.4 Uses 11.3.1.5 Cultivation 11.3.2 Anoectochilus 11.3.2.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.2.2 Uses 11.3.2.3 Cultivation 11.3.3 Arachnis 11.3.3.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.3.2 Inter-generic Hybrids 11.3.3.3 Common Commercial Hybrids 11.3.3.4 Uses 11.3.3.5 Cultivation 11.3.4 Ascocentrum 11.3.4.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.4.2 Hybrids: 11.3.4.2.1 Bigeneric Hybrids 11.3.4.2.2 Trigeneric Hybrids 11.3.4.2.3 Tetrageneric Hybrids 11.3.4.2.4 Pentageneric Hybrids 11.3.4.2.5 Common Commercial Hybrids 11.3.4.3 Uses 11.3.4.4 Cultivation 11.3.5 Bulbophyllum 11.3.5.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.5.2 Hybrids 11.3.5.2.1 Common Commercial Hybrids 11.3.5.3 Medicinal Bulbophyllums 11.3.5.4 Uses 11.3.5.5 Cultivation 11.3.6 Coelogyne 11.3.6.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.6.2 Hybrids 11.3.6.2.1 Inter-specific Hybrids 11.3.6.2.2 Variety-species Hybrid 11.3.6.3 Coelogyne for Hanging Baskets 11.3.6.4 Coelogyne for Herbal Medicines 11.3.6.5 Cultivation 11.3.7 Doritis 11.3.7.1 Primary Hybrids 11.3.7.2 Inter-generic Hybrids 11.3.7.3 Commercial Uses 11.3.7.4 Cultivation 11.3.8 Epidendrum 11.3.8.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.8.2 Inter-generic Hybrids 11.3.8.3 Intervarietal Hybrids 11.3.8.4 Inter-specific Hybrids 11.3.8.5 Variety-species Hybrids 11.3.8.6 Epilaelia Hybrids 11.3.8.7 Epilaeliocattleya Hybrids 11.3.8.8 Epicattleya Hybrids 11.3.8.9 Medicinal Epidendrum 11.3.8.10 Edible Epidendrum 11.3.8.11 Cultivation 11.3.9 Gastrochilus 11.3.9.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.9.2 Uses 11.3.9.3 Cultivation 11.3.10 Laelia 11.3.10.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.10.2 Bigeneric Hybrids 11.3.10.3 Trigeneric Hybrids 11.3.10.4 Tetrageneric Hybrids 11.3.10.5 Natural Hybrids 11.3.10.6 Common Commercial Hybrids 11.3.10.6.1 Laelia 11.3.10.6.2 Laelio-cattleya 11.3.10.7 Medicinal Laelia 11.3.10.8 Cultivation 11.3.11 Miltonia 11.3.11.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.11.2 Bigeneric Hybrids 11.3.11.3 Trigeneric Hybrids 11.3.11.4 Tetrageneric Hybrids 11.3.11.5 Intervarietal Hybrids 11.3.11.6 Interspecific Hybrids 11.3.11.7 Variety-species Hybrids 11.3.11.8 Natural Hybrids 11.3.11.9 Cultivation 11.3.12 Odontoglossum 11.3.12.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.12.2 Bigeneric Hybrids 11.3.12.3 Trigeneric Hybrids 11.3.12.4 Tetrageneric Hybrids 11.3.12.5 Inter-specific Hybrids 11.3.12.6 Inter-varietal Hybrids 11.3.12.7 Variety –Species Hybrid 11.3.12.8 Cultivation 11.3.13 Renanthera 11.3.13.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.13.2 Bigeneric Hybrids 11.3.13.3 Trigeneric Hybrids 11.3.13.4 Renanthera Hybrids 11.3.13.5 Renanstylis Hybrids 11.3.13.6 Renantanda Hybrids 11.3.13.7 Renanthopsis 11.3.13.8 Renanapsis 11.3.13.9 Uses 11.3.13.10 Cultivation 11.3.14 Rhyncostylis 11.3.14.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.14.2 Common Uses 11.3.14.3 Bigeneric Hybrids 11.3.14.4 Trigeneric Hybrids 11.3.14.5 Rhynchorides Hybrids 11.3.14.6 Rhynchostylis Hybrids 11.3.14.7 Rhyncholaeliocattleya Hybrids 11.3.14.8 Rhynchosophrocattleya Hybrids 11.3.14.9 Rhynchovola Hybrid 11.3.14.10 Rhyncattleanthe Hybrids 11.3.14.11 Rhynchovanda Hybrids 11.3.14.12 Rhyncattleya Hybrids 11.3.14.13 Rhyncobrassoleya Hybrids 11.3.14.14 Medicinal Rhyncostylis 11.3.14.15 Cultivation 11.3.15 Zygopetalum 11.3.15.1 Genetic Resources 11.3.15.2 Intergeneric Hybrids 11.3.15.3 Common commercial Hybrids 11.3.15.4 Cultivation 12 Medicinal and Aromatic Orchids 12.1 Medicinal Orchids 12.1.1 Pharmacological Profile of Orchids 12.2 Aromatic Orchids (De, 2014) 12.2.1 Scent Production 12.2.2 Other Examples of Aromatic Orchids 13 Post–harvest Management of Cut Flowers of Commercial Orchids 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Hybrids and Varieties for Cut flower 13.3 Physiology of Cut Flowers 13.3.1 Cellular Structural Changes 13.3.2 Biochemical and Structural Molecular Changes 13.4 Pre-harvest Factors 13.4.1 Varietal Differences 13.4.2 Light Intensity 13.4.3 Temperature 13.4.4 Humidity 13.4.5 Nutrition 13.5 Harvest Factors 13.5.1 Time of Harvest 13.5.2 Method of Harvest 13.5.3 Stage of Harvest 13.6 Post-Harvest Factors 13.6.1 Temperature 13.6.2 Light 13.6.3 Humidity 13.6.4 Water Quality 13.6.5 Ethylene 13.6.6 Diseases and Insect- pests 13.7 Treatments for Improving Longevity of Cut Orchid Flowers 13.7.1 Physical Treatments 13.7.1.1 Pre-cooling 13.7.1.2 Vase Life of Cut Flowers as Affected by Stem Cut Ends 13.7.2 Chemical Treatments 13.7.2.1 Conditioning 13.7.2.2 Impregnation 13.7.2.3 Pulsing 13.7.2.4 Bud Opening 13.7.2.5 Preservatives 13.8 Grading and Packing 13.9 Packaging in Orchids 13.10 Storage of Cut Flowers 13.11 Transport 14 Value Addition in Orchids 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Orchids - A Component Adapted to the Diversified Climate 14.3 Orchids-organically Viable 14.4 Landscaping with Orchids 14.5 Colour Scheme with Orchids 14.5.1 Winter Flowering Orchids 14.5.2 Spring Flowering Orchids 14.5.3 Summer Flowering orchids 14.6 Orchids in Balcony Gardens 14.7 Orchid Tree 14.8 Orchids – Genetic Materials for Breeding and Species Trade 14.9 Orchid Species and Hybrids for Cut flower 14.10 Orchids – as Potted plants/Hanging Baskets/ Trays 14.11 Orchids – as Herbal Medicine and Aromatic Products 14.12 Fragrant Orchids 14.13 Orchids – as Source of Phytochemicals 14.14 Orchids – Used as Foods 14.15 Orchids – a Special Item for Value Addition 14.16 Orchids – for Festivals and Special Uses 14.17 Orchids for Dry Flowers 14.18 Orchid Flower Arrangements 14.19 Other Uses 15 Marketing 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Marketing Channels 15.3 Capital Investments in the Nursery Development 15.4 Marketing of Plants from Nurseries 15.5 Government Regulations and Support Nursery 15.6 Support for Nurseries under National Horticulture Mission (NHM) 15.7 Nursery Expenditure, Income and Profit Analysis 15.8 Expenditure Estimate in Nursery 15.9 Nursery Income 15.10 Maintenance of Records for Sale and Income 15.11 Profit Analysis and Financial Ratios (De, 2013) 15.12 Entrepreneurship Development through Nursery 15.12.1 Role of Nursery Entrepreneurship 15.12.2 Risk Analysis in Nursery Enterprise 15.12.3 Profitability in a Nursery Enterprise 15.13 Export Market Views of Orchids 15.14 Development of International Orchid Market 15.15 Domestic Orchid Market