Computed Tomography - E-Book : Physical Principles, Clinical Applications, and Quality Control

Build the foundation necessary for the practice of CT scanning with Computed Tomography: Physical Principles, Clinical Applications, and Quality Control, 4th Edition. Written to meet the varied requirements of radiography students and practitioners, this two-color text provides comprehensive coverage of the physical principles of CT and its clinical applications. Its clear, straightforward approach is designed to improve your understanding of sectional anatomic images as they relate to CT — and facilitate communication between CT technologists and other medical personnel. Comprehensively covers CT at just the right depth for technologists – going beyond superficial treatment to accommodate all the major advances in CT. One complete CT resource covers what you need to know! The latest information on advances in CT imaging , including: advances in volume CT scanning; CT fluoroscopy; multi-slice applications like 3-D imaging, CT angiography, and virtual reality imaging (endoscopy) – all with excellent coverage of state-of-the-art principles, instrumentation, clinical applications, and quality control. More than 600 photos and line drawings help students understand and visualize concepts. Chapter outlines show you what is most important in every chapter. Strong ancillary package on Evolve facilitates instructor preparation and provides a full complement of support for teaching and learning with the text NEW! Highlights recent technical developments in CT , such as: the iterative reconstruction; detector updates; x-ray tube innovations; radiation dose optimization; hardware and software developments; and the introduction of a new scanner from Toshiba. NEW! Learning Objectives and Key Terms at the beginning of every chapter and a Glossary at the end of the book help you organize and focus on key information. NEW! End-of-Chapter Questions provide opportunity for review and greater challenge. NEW! An added second color aids in helping you read and retain pertinent information Front Cover......Page 1 IFC......Page 2 COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY: Physical Principles, Clinical Applications, and Quality Control......Page 3 Copyright......Page 4 DEDICATION......Page 5 CONTRIBUTORS......Page 7 REVIEWERS......Page 9 FOREWORD......Page 11 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION......Page 13 CONTENT AND ORGANIZATION......Page 14 USE AND SCOPE......Page 15 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 16 CONTENTS......Page 19 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 27 Image Reconstruction from Projections......Page 28 Data Acquisition......Page 29 Image Display, Processing, Storage, Recording, and Communications......Page 30 HOW CT SCANNERS WORK......Page 31 Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield......Page 32 Allan MacLeod Cormack......Page 33 High-Speed CT Scanners......Page 34 Spiral/Helical CT Scanners: Volume Scanning......Page 36 Dual-Source CT Scanner......Page 38 Portable CT......Page 39 Radiation Dose Studies......Page 40 Other Uses......Page 41 CT Fluoroscopy......Page 43 Cardiac CT Imaging......Page 44 CT Screening......Page 46 Radiation Dose Optimization......Page 47 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING......Page 48 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 49 REFERENCES......Page 50 BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 51 LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 52 GENERIC DIGITAL IMAGING SYSTEM......Page 53 Image Display, Storage, and Communication......Page 54 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES......Page 55 Definitions......Page 56 Image Domains......Page 57 Matrix......Page 58 Voxels......Page 59 Effect of Digital Image Parameters on the Appearance of Digital Images......Page 60 Quantization......Page 61 Analog-to-Digital Conversion......Page 62 Why Digitize Images......Page 63 Point Operations......Page 64 Spatial Location Filtering: Convolution......Page 65 Spatial Frequency Filtering: Low-Pass Filtering......Page 67 Geometric Operations......Page 68 Types of Image Compression......Page 69 Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 70 Three-Dimensional Imaging in Radiology......Page 71 IMAGE-PROCESSING HARDWARE......Page 72 IMAGE PROCESSING: AN ESSENTIAL TOOL FOR CT......Page 73 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 74 REFERENCES......Page 75 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 76 Limitations of Conventional Tomography......Page 77 Data Acquisition......Page 79 Radiation Attenuation-Basic Physics......Page 80 Data Processing......Page 82 CT and Energy Dependence......Page 83 Display device. The grayscale image is displayed on a television monitor (Cathode ray tube [CRT]) or liquid crystal display, whi.........Page 85 Format of the CT Image......Page 86 TECHNOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 87 Sequence of Events......Page 88 Advantages......Page 89 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 90 REFERENCES......Page 91 LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 92 BASIC SCHEME FOR DATA ACQUISITION......Page 93 DATA ACQUISITION GEOMETRIES......Page 94 Rotating Fan Beam Within a Circular Detector Array......Page 95 Spiral/Helical Geometry Scanners......Page 96 Fifth-Generation Scanners......Page 97 Seventh-Generation Scanners: Flat-Panel CT Scanners......Page 98 SLIP-RING TECHNOLOGY......Page 99 Low-Voltage Slip Ring......Page 100 Advantages......Page 101 X-Ray Tubes......Page 102 Straton X-Ray Tube: A New X-Ray Tube for MSCT Scanning......Page 104 Alternative X-Ray Tube Designs for Multislice CT......Page 106 Filtration......Page 107 Collimation......Page 108 Detector Characteristics......Page 109 Scintillation Detectors......Page 110 Design Innovations......Page 112 The Stellar Detector......Page 113 The NanoPanel Prism Detector......Page 114 Detector-Based Spectral CT......Page 115 Multirow/Multislice Detectors......Page 117 The 256-Slice CT Prototype Detector......Page 118 Function......Page 119 Components......Page 120 DATA ACQUISITION AND SAMPLING......Page 121 New Sampling Technique: z-Sharp Technology......Page 122 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 124 REFERENCES......Page 125 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 127 Fourier Transform......Page 128 Problem in CT......Page 129 Back-Projection......Page 131 Iterative Algorithms......Page 132 Filtered Back-Projection......Page 133 Fourier Reconstruction......Page 134 TYPES OF DATA......Page 135 Image Data......Page 136 CONE-BEAM ALGORITHMS FOR MULTISLICE CT SCANNERS......Page 137 AN OVERVIEW OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES......Page 138 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 139 REFERENCES......Page 140 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 142 ASSUMPTIONS MADE TO DERIVE THE FBP ALGORITHM......Page 143 Input......Page 144 MODELING APPROACHES IN IR ALGORITHMS: AN OVERVIEW......Page 145 EXAMPLES OF IR ALGORITHMS......Page 148 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION STUDIES OF IR ALGORITHMS......Page 153 Examples in 2013......Page 154 Examples in 2015......Page 155 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 159 REFERENCES......Page 160 LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 162 Hardware Organization......Page 163 Types......Page 164 CT SCANNER—BASIC EQUIPMENT CONFIGURATION......Page 165 Gantry......Page 167 Patient Table......Page 168 Processing Architectures and Hardware......Page 169 The Graphics Processing Unit......Page 170 Imaging and Radiation Therapy Applications......Page 172 Image Display......Page 173 Laser Recording System......Page 174 Communications......Page 175 Picture Archiving and Communications Systems: A Definition......Page 176 Communication Protocol Standards......Page 177 Image Compression......Page 178 Options......Page 179 Equipment Specifications......Page 180 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 181 BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 182 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 183 Definitions......Page 184 Manipulating Window Width and Window Level......Page 185 Effect of Window Width on Image Contrast......Page 188 Effect of Window Level on Image Brightness......Page 189 Preset Windows......Page 190 Multiplanar Reconstruction......Page 192 Basic Tools......Page 194 Advanced Tools......Page 195 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 197 REFERENCES......Page 198 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 200 Definition and Measurements......Page 201 Factors Affecting Resolution......Page 202 Cross-Plane Spatial Resolution......Page 204 Definition and Measurements......Page 206 Factors That Affect Low-Contrast Detectability......Page 207 Factors That Affect Temporal Resolution......Page 209 Techniques to Reduce Motion Impact......Page 210 Accuracy and Linearity......Page 211 Measurements......Page 213 Noise Sources......Page 214 Definition and General Discussion......Page 215 Types and Causes......Page 216 Metal Artifacts......Page 217 Beam-Hardening Artifacts......Page 219 Partial Volume Artifacts......Page 220 Aliasing Artifacts......Page 222 Noise-Induced Artifacts......Page 223 Cone-Beam Artifacts......Page 224 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 225 REFERENCES......Page 226 LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 228 RADIATION QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS......Page 229 Stochastic Effects......Page 230 PATIENT EXPOSURE PATTERNS IN RADIOGRAPHY AND CT......Page 231 CT DOSIMETRY CONCEPTS......Page 232 Phantoms for CT Dose Measurement......Page 233 Multiple-Scan Average Dose......Page 235 CT Dose Metrics and Calculation......Page 236 Dose Length Product......Page 237 Measuring the CT Dose Index......Page 238 Constant Milliamperage-Seconds......Page 239 Collimation (Z-Axis Geometric Efficiency)......Page 240 Over-Ranging (Z-Overscanning)......Page 241 Patient Centering......Page 242 Definition of Automatic Tube Current Modulation......Page 243 Defined Level of Image Quality in CT Automatic Exposure Control......Page 244 IMAGE QUALITY AND DOSE: OPERATOR CONSIDERATIONS......Page 246 CT DOSE OPTIMIZATION......Page 247 Early Dose Optimization Strategies......Page 248 Research on Dose Optimization and Image Quality1......Page 250 Radiation Protection Actions......Page 251 Radiation Protection Principles......Page 252 IMAGE WISELY AND IMAGE GENTLY......Page 253 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 254 REFERENCES......Page 255 LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 258 Terminology Controversy......Page 259 Scanning Sequence......Page 260 PRINCIPLES OF SSCT SCANNERS......Page 261 Requirements for Volume Scanning......Page 262 Data Acquisition......Page 263 Image Reconstruction......Page 264 360-Degree Linear Interpolation Algorithm......Page 265 INSTRUMENTATION......Page 266 Equipment Components......Page 267 BASIC SCAN PARAMETERS......Page 268 Terminology......Page 269 Dual-Slice CT Scanners......Page 271 SSCT......Page 272 Collimation. The fundamental collimation scheme is shown in Figure 11-20, B. The beam is collimated by a precollimator to fall o.........Page 273 Beam geometry. As the number of detector rows in a multirow detector array increases, the beam becomes wider to cover the 2D det.........Page 274 Pitch—International Electrotechnical Commission Definition......Page 275 Multislice Reconstruction......Page 276 MSCT for up to four detector rows. In MSCT, the z-gap is determined by the pitch (as in SSCT) and by the detector row spacing, d.........Page 277 MSCT for 16 or more detector rows. The previous description lends itself to MSCT scanners with up to four detector rows. These s.........Page 279 Two-Dimensional Approximate Algorithm......Page 281 MSCT Detectors......Page 283 Detector Materials......Page 284 Slice Thickness Selection......Page 285 Data Acquisition System......Page 287 Computer System......Page 288 Data Acquisition......Page 289 IMAGE QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS......Page 290 The 256-Slice Beta Four-Dimensional CT Scanner......Page 291 The 320-Slice Dynamic Volume CT Scanner......Page 293 BEYOND SINGLE-SOURCE MULTISLICE CT SCANNERS: DUAL-SOURCE CT SCANNER......Page 294 Cardiac Imaging with the Dual-Source CT Scanner......Page 295 ADVANTAGES OF MSCT......Page 296 TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS......Page 297 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 298 REFERENCES......Page 299 LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 302 Definition......Page 303 Acquisition Parameters......Page 305 Contrast Medium Administration......Page 306 Image Postprocessing Techniques: Volumetric Image Visualization Tools......Page 307 Use of the graphics processing unit. In Chapter 7, the graphics processing unit (GPU) was introduced as an innovative piece of c.........Page 308 Fast continuous scanning. Fast continuous scanning was a major technological development in CT, which resulted in spiral/helical.........Page 309 Fast image reconstruction. In real-time CT fluoroscopy, fast image reconstruction is made possible by a set of hardware componen.........Page 310 X-Ray Technique Parameters......Page 311 Radiation Dose Considerations......Page 312 APPLICATIONS IN RADIATION THERAPY: CT SIMULATION......Page 314 CT Simulator......Page 315 Medical Image Fusion Areas of Studies......Page 316 Steps in Medical Image Fusion......Page 317 Definition and Use......Page 318 Technical Elements......Page 320 Use of antiscatter grids. A fundamental problem with FD-CT scanners is that of scatter radiation artifacts due to the wide cone-.........Page 321 Major Technical Components......Page 322 Research Studies......Page 323 Radiation Doses......Page 324 QUANTITATIVE CT......Page 325 System Features......Page 326 Contrast resolution. Contrast resolution refers to the ability of the scanner to demonstrate small differences in tissue contras.........Page 327 System Features and Imaging Performance......Page 328 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 330 REFERENCES......Page 331 LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 334 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 335 HISTORY......Page 336 Modeling......Page 337 Rendering......Page 338 Slice Imaging......Page 339 Definition of Three-Dimensional Medical Imaging......Page 340 Processing for Three-Dimensional Image Display......Page 342 RENDERING TECHNIQUES......Page 343 Surface Rendering......Page 344 Volume Rendering......Page 345 Intensity Projection Renderings......Page 346 Maximum Intensity Projection......Page 348 Minimum Intensity Projection......Page 349 Comparison of Three-Dimensional Rendering Techniques......Page 350 Stand-Alone Workstations......Page 352 FUTURE OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL IMAGING......Page 353 Data Acquisition......Page 354 Three-Dimensional Rendering......Page 355 APPLICATIONS OF VIRTUAL ENDOSCOPY......Page 356 Virtual Dissection......Page 357 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS......Page 358 CT Endoscopy Tool......Page 359 FLIGHT PATH PLANNING......Page 361 FUTURE OF CT VIRTUAL ENDOSCOPY......Page 362 ROLE OF THE RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST......Page 363 REFERENCES......Page 364 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 367 PRINCIPLES OF PET IMAGING......Page 368 PRINCIPLES OF SPECT IMAGING......Page 373 Attenuation Correction......Page 375 CT-Based Attenuation Correction......Page 376 Clinical PET/CT Data Acquisition......Page 377 Epilepsy: FDG......Page 380 Clinical SPECT/CT Data Acquisition......Page 381 Parathyroid Imaging......Page 383 Thyroid Imaging......Page 384 Lymphoscintigraphy......Page 385 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 387 REFERENCES......Page 388 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 390 Head and Face......Page 391 Cerebral Blood Vessels......Page 393 Spine and Neck......Page 396 ROLE OF CT COMPARED WITH OTHER IMAGING MODALITIES......Page 397 SECTIONAL ANATOMY: A REVIEW......Page 398 Coronal Sections......Page 399 Neck......Page 401 PATIENT PREPARATION......Page 402 POSITIONING......Page 403 Head and Its Contents......Page 404 The Spine......Page 405 Cerebral Blood Vessels......Page 406 Slice Thickness......Page 407 CONTRAST MEDIA USAGE......Page 408 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 410 FURTHER READING......Page 411 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 412 Mediastinum......Page 413 Lung......Page 414 Cardiac......Page 416 Bowel......Page 417 Pancreas......Page 419 Adrenal Glands......Page 421 Pelvis......Page 422 Abscess Drainage......Page 424 Musculoskeletal System......Page 425 Patient Information......Page 426 Oral Contrast Media......Page 427 Intravenous Contrast Agents......Page 428 Thorax......Page 429 Abdomen and Pelvis......Page 430 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 433 REFERENCES......Page 434 LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 438 Differences Versus Single-Detector CT......Page 439 Patient Management......Page 440 Sedation......Page 441 Use of Intravenous Contrast Media......Page 442 Scan Planning and Preparation......Page 443 Scan Parameters......Page 444 CT of the Face and Neck......Page 445 Patient Positioning......Page 446 CT OF THE CHEST AND ABDOMEN......Page 447 Trauma......Page 448 High-Resolution CT......Page 449 Complex Fractures......Page 451 Infections......Page 452 Patient Positioning......Page 453 Patient Positioning and Preparation......Page 454 Scanning Protocols......Page 457 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 458 BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 459 KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 460 Essential Steps in a QC Program......Page 461 The Catphan 700......Page 462 WHY QUALITY CONTROL......Page 464 THREE TENETS OF QUALITY CONTROL......Page 465 QUALITY CONTROL TESTS FOR CT SCANNERS......Page 466 Quality Control Tests......Page 467 ACR CT Accreditation QC Tests......Page 468 Proposed QC Tests......Page 469 REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 483 REFERENCES......Page 484 REFERENCES......Page 485 ESSENTIAL TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CARDIAC COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY IMAGING......Page 486 Spatial Resolution......Page 487 Radiation Dose Considerations......Page 488 REFERENCES......Page 489 CHAPTER 6......Page 491 CHAPTER 14......Page 492 CHAPTER 18......Page 493 B......Page 494 D......Page 495 F......Page 496 I......Page 497 M......Page 498 P......Page 499 S......Page 500 U......Page 501 Z......Page 502 A......Page 503 C......Page 504 D......Page 506 G......Page 507 I......Page 508 L......Page 509 M......Page 510 P......Page 511 R......Page 512 S......Page 513 T......Page 515 Z......Page 516 Back Cover......Page 518 This text provides information and thorough coverage of the physical principles of computed tomography. Readers will gain knowledge about the practice of computed topography scanning, effective communication with other medical personnel, and sectional anatomic images as they relate to computer tomography. Build the foundation necessary for the practice of CT scanning with Computed Tomography: Physical Principles, Clinical Applications, and Quality Control, 4th Edition. Written to meet the varied requirements of radiography students and practitioners, this two-color text provides comprehensive coverage of the physical principles of CT and its clinical applications. Its clear, straightforward approach is designed to improve your understanding of sectional anatomic images as they relate to CT - and facilitate communication between CT technologists and other medical personnel.Comprehensively covers CT at just the right depth for technologists - going beyond superficial treatment to accommodate all the major advances in CT. One complete CT resource covers what you need to know! The latest information on advances in CT imaging, including: advances in volume CT scanning; CT fluoroscopy; multi-slice applications like 3-D imaging, CT angiography, and virtual reality imaging (endoscopy) - all with excellent coverage of state-of-the-art principles, instrumentation, clinical applications, and quality control.More than 600 photos and line drawings help students understand and visualize concepts.Chapter outlines show you what is most important in every chapter.Strong ancillary package on Evolve facilitates instructor preparation and provides a full complement of support for teaching and learning with the textNEW! Highlights recent technical developments in CT, such as: the iterative reconstruction; detector updates; x-ray tube innovations; radiation dose optimization; hardware and software developments; and the introduction of a new scanner from Toshiba.NEW! Learning Objectives and Key Terms at the beginning of every chapter and a Glossary at the end of the book help you organize and focus on key information.NEW! End-of-Chapter Questions provide opportunity for review and greater challenge.NEW! An added second color aids in helping you read and retain pertinent information