Construction Materials : Their Nature and Behaviour, Fifth Edition

This established textbook provides an understanding of materials'behaviour through knowledge of their chemical and physical structure. It covers the main classes of construction materials: metals, concrete, other ceramics (including bricks and masonry), polymers, fibre composites, bituminous materials, timber, and glass. It provides a clear and comprehensive perspective on the whole range of materials used in modern construction, to form a must-have for civil and structural engineering students, and those on courses such as architecture, surveying and construction. It begins with a Fundamentals section followed by a section on each of the major groups of materials. In this new edition:- The section on fibre composites FRP and FRC has been completely restructured and updated.- Typical questions with answers to any numerical examples are given at the end of each section, as well as an instructor's manual with further questions and answers.- The links in all parts have also been updated and extended, including links to free reports from The Concrete Centre, as well as other online resources and material suppliers'websites.- and now with solutions manual and resources for adopting instructors on https://www.crcpress.com/9781498741101 Cover 1 Half Title 2 Title Page 4 Copyright Page 5 Contents 6 Preface 30 Acknowledgements 40 Editors 42 Contributors 44 Part I: Fundamentals 46 1. Atoms, bonding, energy and equilibrium 48 1.1 Atomic structure 48 1.2 Bonding of atoms 51 1.2.1 Ionic bonding 51 1.2.2 Covalent bonding 52 1.2.3 Metallic bonds 54 1.2.4 Van der Waals bonds and the hydrogen bond 55 1.3 Energy and entropy 56 1.3.1 Stable and metastable equilibrium 57 1.3.2 Mixing 57 1.3.3 Entropy 58 1.3.4 Free energy 58 1.4 Equilibrium and equilibrium diagrams 59 1.4.1 Single component diagrams 60 1.4.2 Two-component diagrams 61 1.4.3 Eutectic systems 63 1.4.4 Intermediate compounds 64 References 66 2. Mechanical properties of solids 68 2.1 Stress, strain and stress–strain curves 68 2.2 Elastic behaviour and the elastic constants 71 2.2.1 The elastic moduli 71 2.2.2 Poisson’s ratio 72 2.2.3 Relationships between the elastic constants 73 2.2.4 Work done in deformation 74 2.3 Plastic deformation 74 2.4 Failure in tension 76 2.5 True stress and strain 77 2.6 Behaviour in compression 78 2.6.1 Plastic deformation of ductile materials 78 2.6.2 Failure of brittle materials 78 2.7 Behaviour under constant load: Creep 80 2.8 Behaviour under cyclic loading: Fatigue 82 2.8.1 Fatigue life and S/N curves 82 2.8.2 Cumulative fatigue damage: Miner’s rule 84 2.9 Impact loading 85 2.10 Variability, characteristic strength and the Weibull distribution 86 2.10.1 Descriptions of variability 87 2.10.2 Characteristic strength 88 2.10.3 The Weibull distribution 90 References 91 3. Structure of solids 92 3.1 Crystal structure 92 3.2 Imperfection and impurities 97 3.3 Crystal growth and grain structure 98 3.4 Ceramics 99 3.5 Polymers 101 Reference 103 4. Fracture and toughness 104 4.1 Theoretical strength 104 4.2 Fracture mechanics 106 Reference 110 5. Liquids, viscoelasticity and gels 112 5.1 Liquids 112 5.2 Viscoelastic behaviour 114 5.3 Gels and thixotropy 116 6. Surfaces 118 6.1 Surface energy 118 6.2 Wetting 119 6.3 Adhesives 121 6.4 Adsorption 123 6.5 Water of crystallisation 124 7. Electrical and thermal properties 126 7.1 Electrical conductivity 126 7.2 Thermal conductivity 127 7.3 Coefficient of thermal expansion 127 Example questions for Part I Fundamentals 128 Further reading for Part I Fundamentals 130 Part II: Metals and alloys 132 8. Deformation and strengthening of metals 134 8.1 Elasticity and plasticity 134 8.2 Dislocation movement 134 8.3 Dislocation energy 136 8.4 Strengthening of metals 136 8.4.1 Grain size 137 8.4.2 Strain hardening 138 8.4.3 Annealing 138 8.4.4 Alloying 138 8.4.5 Quenching and tempering 139 8.5 Strengthening, ductility and toughness 140 References 140 9. Forming of metals 142 9.1 Castings 142 9.2 Hot working 142 9.3 Cold working 144 9.4 Joining 144 9.4.1 Welding 144 9.4.2 Brazing, soldering and gluing 145 9.4.3 Bolting and riveting 146 Reference 146 10. Oxidation and corrosion 148 10.1 Dry oxidation 148 10.2 Wet corrosion 149 10.3 The electromotive series 149 10.4 Localised corrosion 151 10.4.1 Intergranular attack 151 10.4.2 Concentration cell corrosion 151 10.4.3 Stress corrosion cracking 152 10.4.4 Corrosion fatigue 152 10.5 Corrosion prevention 152 10.5.1 Design 152 10.5.2 Coatings 153 10.5.3 Cathodic protection 153 10.6 Corrosion control 154 Reference 154 11. Iron and steel 156 11.1 Extraction of iron 156 11.2 Iron–carbon equilibrium diagram 157 11.3 Cast irons 159 11.4 Steel 160 11.4.1 Hot-rolled structural steels 161 11.4.2 Cold-rolled steels 165 11.4.3 Stainless steel 165 11.4.4 Steel reinforcement for concrete 166 11.4.5 Prestressing steel 167 11.5 Recycling of steel 168 References 169 12. Aluminium 170 12.1 Extraction 170 12.2 Aluminium alloys 170 12.3 Recycling of aluminium 172 Example questions for Part II Metals and alloys 173 Further reading for Part II Metals and alloys 174 Part III: Concrete 176 13. Portland cements 182 13.1 Manufacture 182 13.2 Physical properties 183 13.3 Chemical composition 184 13.4 Hydration 186 13.5 Structure and strength of hcp 192 13.6 Water in hcp and drying shrinkage 194 13.7 Modifications of Portland cement 196 13.7.1 Setting, strength gain and heat output 196 13.7.2 Sulphate resistance 196 13.7.3 White cement 196 13.8 Cement standards and nomenclature 197 References 198 14. Admixtures 200 14.1 Action and classification of admixtures 200 14.2 Plasticisers 201 14.3 Superplasticisers 202 14.4 Accelerators 204 14.5 Retarders 205 14.6 Air-entraining agents 206 14.7 Other types of admixtures 207 References 208 15. Additions 210 15.1 Pozzolanic behaviour 211 15.2 Common additions 211 15.3 Chemical composition and physical properties 212 15.4 Supply and specification 213 16. Other types of cement 216 16.1 Calcium aluminate cement 216 16.1.1 Manufacture and composition 216 16.1.2 Hydration and conversion 217 16.1.3 Uses 218 16.2 Alkali-activated cements 220 16.3 Geopolymer cements 220 16.4 Magnesium oxide-based cements 221 16.5 Waste-derived cements 221 References 221 17. Aggregates for concrete 224 17.1 Types of primary aggregates 225 17.1.1 Normal-density aggregates 225 17.1.2 Lightweight aggregate 225 17.1.3 Heavyweight aggregates 225 17.2 Aggregate classification: Shape and size 225 17.3 Other properties of aggregates 229 17.3.1 Porosity and absorption 229 17.3.2 Elastic properties and strength 229 17.3.3 Surface characteristics 230 17.4 Secondary aggregates 230 References 230 18. Properties of fresh concrete 232 18.1 General behaviour 232 18.2 Measurement of consistence 233 18.2.1 Fundamental properties 233 18.2.2 Single-point tests 234 18.3 Factors affecting consistence 238 18.4 Loss of consistence 239 References 240 19. Early-age properties of concrete 242 19.1 Behaviour after placing 242 19.1.1 Segregation and bleeding 242 19.1.2 Plastic settlement 243 19.1.3 Plastic shrinkage 243 19.1.4 Methods of reducing segregation and bleed and their effects 244 19.2 Curing 245 19.3 Strength gain and temperature effects 245 19.3.1 Effect of temperature 245 19.3.2 Maturity 245 19.3.3 Heat of hydration effects 247 References 250 20. Deformation of concrete 252 20.1 Drying shrinkage 252 20.1.1 Drying shrinkage of hcp 252 20.1.2 Mechanisms of shrinkage and swelling 254 20.1.2.1 Capillary tension 255 20.1.2.2 Surface tension or surface energy 256 20.1.2.3 Disjoining pressure 256 20.1.2.4 Movement of interlayer water 257 20.1.3 Drying shrinkage of concrete 257 20.1.3.1 Effect of mix constituents and proportions 257 20.1.3.2 Effect of specimen geometry 258 20.1.4 Prediction of shrinkage 259 20.2 Autogenous shrinkage 260 20.3 Carbonation shrinkage 260 20.4 Thermal expansion 260 20.4.1 Thermal expansion of hcp 261 20.4.2 Thermal expansion of concrete 261 20.5 Stress–strain behaviour 262 20.5.1 Elasticity of the hcp 262 20.5.2 Models for concrete behaviour 263 20.5.2.1 Model A: Phases in parallel 264 20.5.2.2 Model B: Phases in series 265 20.5.2.3 Model C: Combined 265 20.5.3 Measured stress–strain behaviour of concrete 266 20.5.4 Elastic modulus of concrete 267 20.5.5 Poisson’s ratio 268 20.6 Creep 268 20.6.1 Factors influencing creep 270 20.6.2 Mechanisms of creep 271 20.6.2.1 Moisture diffusion 271 20.6.2.2 Structural adjustment 271 20.6.2.3 Microcracking 272 20.6.2.4 Delayed elastic strain 272 20.6.3 Prediction of creep 272 References 272 21. Strength and failure of concrete 274 21.1 Strength tests 274 21.1.1 Compressive strength 274 21.1.2 Tensile strength 277 21.1.2.1 Splitting test 277 21.1.2.2 Flexural test 278 21.1.3 Relationship between strength measurements 279 21.2 Factors influencing strength of Portland cement concrete 280 21.2.1 Transition/interface zone 280 21.2.2 Water/cement ratio 281 21.2.3 Age 283 21.2.4 Temperature 284 21.2.5 Humidity 284 21.2.6 Aggregate properties, size and volume concentration 285 21.3 Strength of concrete containing additions 286 21.4 Cracking and fracture in concrete 288 21.4.1 Development of microcracking 288 21.4.2 Creep rupture 289 21.4.3 The fracture mechanics approach 290 21.5 Strength under multiaxial loading 291 References 292 22. Concrete mix design 294 22.1 The mix design process 294 22.1.1 Specified concrete properties 294 22.1.2 Constituent material properties 295 22.1.3 Initial estimate of mix proportions 295 22.1.4 Laboratory trial mixes 296 22.1.5 Full-scale trial mixes 296 22.2 U.K. method of ‘Design of normal concrete mixes’ (BRE, 1997) 296 22.2.1 Target mean strength 296 22.2.2 Free water/cement ratio 297 22.2.3 Free water content 297 22.2.4 Cement content 297 22.2.5 Total aggregate content 298 22.2.6 Fine and coarse aggregate content 299 22.3 Mix design with additions 300 22.4 Design of mixes containing admixtures 301 22.4.1 Mixes with plasticisers 301 22.4.2 Mixes with superplasticisers 301 22.4.3 Mixes with air-entraining agents 302 22.5 Other mix design methods 302 References 302 23. Non-destructive testing of hardened concrete 304 23.1 Surface hardness: Rebound (or Schmidt) hammer test 304 23.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test 306 23.3 Resonant frequency test 308 23.4 Near-to-surface tests 309 23.5 Other tests 311 References 311 24. Durability of concrete 312 24.1 Transport mechanisms through concrete 312 24.2 Measurements of flow constants for cement paste and concrete 315 24.2.1 Permeability 315 24.2.2 Diffusivity 318 24.2.3 Sorptivity 319 24.3 Degradation of concrete 321 24.3.1 Attack by sulphates 321 24.3.2 The thaumasite form of sulphate attack 324 24.3.3 Sea water attack 325 24.3.4 Acid attack 326 24.3.5 Alkali–aggregate and alkali–silica reaction 326 24.3.6 Frost attack: Freeze–thaw damage 330 24.3.7 Fire resistance 332 24.4 Durability of steel in concrete 333 24.4.1 General principles of the corrosion of the steel in concrete 334 24.4.2 Carbonation-induced corrosion 335 24.4.3 Chloride-induced corrosion 337 References 340 25. Special concretes 342 25.1 Lightweight aggregate concrete 342 25.2 High-density aggregate concrete 343 25.3 No-fines concrete 344 25.4 Sprayed concrete 344 25.5 High-strength concrete 345 25.6 Flowing concrete 346 25.7 Self-compacting concrete 347 25.8 Underwater concrete 348 25.9 Foamed concrete 349 25.10 Aerated concrete 350 References 350 26. Recycling of concrete 352 26.1 Recycling of fresh concrete 352 26.2 Recycling of concrete after demolition 352 References 354 Example questions for Part III Concrete 355 Further reading for Part III Concrete 357 Part IV: Polymers 364 27. Polymers: Types, properties and applications 366 27.1 Polymeric materials 366 27.1.1 Thermoplastic polymers 366 27.1.2 Thermosetting polymers 366 27.1.3 Foamed polymers 367 27.2 Processing of thermoplastic polymers 367 27.2.1 Profile production 368 27.2.2 Film-blown plastic sheet 368 27.2.3 Blow-moulded hollow plastic articles 368 27.2.4 Co-extrusion items 368 27.2.5 Highly orientated grid sheets 368 27.3 Polymer properties 369 27.3.1 Mechanical properties 369 27.3.2 Time-dependent characteristics 369 27.4 Applications and uses of polymers 373 27.4.1 Sealants 373 27.4.2 Adhesives 374 27.4.3 Elastomers 375 27.4.4 Geosynthetics 375 27.4.4.1 Geotextiles 376 27.4.4.2 Geomembranes 376 27.4.4.3 Geo-linear elements 376 27.4.4.4 Geogrids 377 27.4.4.5 Geocomposites 377 References 377 Bibliography 377 Example questions for Part IV Polymers 379 Further reading for Part IV Polymers 380 Part V: Fibre composites 382 28. Reinforcing fibre materials 386 28.1 Glass fibres 386 28.2 Carbon fibres 389 28.3 Polymer fibres 390 28.3.1 Aramid fibres 391 28.4 Natural fibres 391 28.5 Steel fibres 392 28.6 Asbestos fibres 393 References 394 29. Reinforcing fibre architecture 396 29.1 Volume fraction 396 29.2 Reinforcement elements 397 29.3 Reinforcement layouts 398 29.3.1 Fibre length and the critical length 398 29.3.2 Fibre orientation 399 29.3.3 Efficiency factors 400 29.3.4 Textile reinforcement 401 References 403 30. Matrices 404 30.1 Fibre-reinforced polymer matrices 404 30.2 Fibre-reinforced concrete matrices 404 References 405 31. Interfaces and bonding 406 31.1 Interfaces and bonding in frp 406 31.1.1 Coupling agents and surface treatments 406 31.1.2 Bonding 407 31.2 Interfaces and bonding in frc 407 31.2.1 Interfacial morphology and properties 407 31.2.2 Bonding 408 References 409 32. Mechanical behaviour and properties of composites 410 32.1 Fundamental composite properties 410 32.1.1 Longitudinal stiffness 410 32.1.2 Transverse stiffness 411 32.1.3 Intermediate behaviour, efficiency factors and composite strength 412 32.2 Complex composite behaviour 413 32.3 Laminate composite behaviour (frp) 414 32.4 Brittle matrix composite theory (frc) 415 32.4.1 Composite materials approach 416 32.4.2 Critical fibre volume fraction 416 32.4.3 Primary frc: ACK theory and multiple cracking 418 32.4.4 Post-cracking behaviour 420 32.4.5 Failure, post-peak behaviour and secondary frc 421 32.4.6 Intermediate behaviour 422 32.4.7 High modulus/high Vf behaviour 422 32.4.8 Fracture mechanics approach 423 32.4.9 Crack suppression 423 32.4.10 Crack stabilisation 424 32.4.11 Fibre/matrix debonding 426 32.5 Typical mechanical properties 427 References 429 33. Manufacture of fibre composites 430 33.1 Manufacture of frp for construction 430 33.1.1 Manual processes for frp 430 33.1.2 Semi-automated processes for frp 432 33.1.3 Automated processes for frp 433 33.2 Manufacture of frc 434 33.2.1 Cast premix 434 33.2.2 Sprayed premix 435 33.2.3 Dual-spray systems 436 33.2.4 Hand lay-up 436 33.2.5 Automated systems 437 References 438 34. Applications of fibre composites in construction 440 34.1 Applications for frp in construction 440 34.1.1 Structural systems 440 34.1.2 Rehabilitation systems 442 34.1.3 Concrete column confinement 445 34.1.4 Internal concrete reinforcement 446 34.1.5 Hybrid systems 447 34.1.6 Bridge enclosures 448 34.2 Applications for frc in construction 449 34.2.1 Architectural cladding: Glass-frc 449 34.2.2 Tunnel linings: Steel-frc and polymer-frc 450 34.2.3 Industrial flooring: Steel-frc and polymer-frc 452 34.2.4 Sheet materials for building: Natural-frc 454 34.2.5 Permanent formwork: Glass-frc 454 References 455 35. Durability 458 35.1 Durability of frp 459 35.1.1 Moisture and solutions 459 35.1.2 Temperature effects 459 35.1.3 Ultraviolet radiation 460 35.1.4 Fatigue 460 35.1.5 Creep 460 35.1.6 Bond durability in strengthening systems 461 35.1.7 Durability of frp rebars 461 35.1.8 Material degradation models for frp 461 35.2 Durability of frc 462 35.2.1 Multifilament/microfibre frc 462 35.2.2 Monofilament/macrofibre frc 463 35.2.3 Property loss mechanisms 464 35.2.4 Fibre weakening 464 35.2.5 Continued matrix hydration 464 35.2.6 Designing durable frc 467 35.2.7 Modelling and service life prediction 467 References 468 36. Recycling 470 36.1 Recycling of frp 470 36.2 Recycling of frc 471 References 471 Example questions for Part V Composites 472 Further reading for Part V Composites 474 Part VI: Glass 476 37. Manufacture and processing 478 37.1 Manufacturing of flat glass 478 37.1.1 Glassmaking materials 478 37.1.2 Composition 478 37.1.3 Constituents and microstructure of glass 479 37.1.4 Historical processes 479 37.1.5 Rolled glass (including wired and polished wired) 480 37.1.6 Float glass 480 37.1.7 Fusion-draw process 481 37.2 Coatings 481 37.2.1 Low emissivity 482 37.2.2 Solar control 482 37.2.3 Selective, high performance 482 37.2.4 Self-cleaning 482 37.3 Strengthening processes 483 37.3.1 Toughening (tempering) and the heat soak test 483 37.3.2 Heat strengthening 484 37.3.3 Chemical strengthening 485 37.4 Forming processes 485 37.4.1 Bending 485 37.4.2 Bending and tempering 485 37.4.3 Channel glass 486 37.5 Decoration processes 486 37.5.1 Sand blasting 486 37.5.2 Acid etching 486 37.5.3 Fritting 487 37.5.4 Stained glass 487 37.5.5 Printing 487 37.6 Laminating 487 37.7 Insulating unit manufacture 489 37.8 Fire-resisting glasses 490 References 491 38. Properties and performance 492 38.1 Physical properties 492 38.2 Mechanical properties 492 38.2.1 Patterns of breakage 492 38.2.2 Strength of glass 492 38.2.3 Static fatigue 495 38.2.4 Post-breakage characteristics of laminated glass combinations 495 38.2.4.1 Annealed/annealed 495 38.2.4.2 Heat strengthened/heat strengthened 496 38.2.4.3 Toughened/toughened 496 38.2.4.4 Toughened/heat strengthened 496 Reference 496 39. Design and applications 498 39.1 Design of glazing and selection of glass type 498 39.2 Deflection limits for glazing 498 39.2.1 Deflection criteria 498 39.2.2 Guidance from standards 499 39.3 Design stresses and load factors 499 39.3.1 Strength of laminated glass 499 39.4 Windows 500 39.4.1 Design of insulating units 500 39.5 Glass walls and structural glass assemblies 501 39.6 Skylights 501 39.7 Floors and stairs 501 39.8 Glazing for security 501 References 502 40. Service and end of life 504 40.1 Durability 504 40.1.1 Cleaning 504 40.1.2 Protection on site 504 40.1.3 Failure of double-glazed units 505 40.1.4 Delamination of laminated glass 505 40.2 What to do if glass breaks 505 40.3 Disposal and recycling 505 References 506 Example questions for Part VI Glass 507 Further reading for Part VI Glass 508 Part VII: Timber 510 41. Structure of timber and the presence of moisture 514 41.1 Structure at the macroscopic level 514 41.2 Structure at the microscopic level 516 41.3 Molecular structure and ultrastructure 522 41.3.1 Chemical constituents 522 41.3.1.1 Cellulose 522 41.3.1.2 Hemicelluloses and lignin 525 41.3.1.3 Extractives 526 41.3.1.4 Minerals 526 41.3.1.5 Acidity 526 41.3.2 The cell wall as a fibre composite 527 41.3.3 Cell wall layers 528 41.4 Variability in structure 531 41.5 Appearance of timber in relation to its structure 532 41.5.1 Texture 532 41.5.2 Figure 532 41.5.2.1 Grain 533 41.5.2.2 Growth rings 534 41.5.2.3 Rays 534 41.5.2.4 Knots 534 41.5.3 Colour 535 41.6 Mass–volume relationships 536 41.6.1 Density 536 41.6.2 Specific gravity 537 41.6.3 Density of the dry cell wall 539 41.6.4 Porosity 539 41.7 Moisture in timber 539 41.7.1 Equilibrium moisture content 539 41.7.2 Determination of moisture content 540 41.7.3 The moisture content of green timber 541 41.7.4 Removal of moisture from timber 542 41.7.5 Influence of structure 542 41.7.6 Fibre saturation point 543 41.7.7 Sorption 544 41.8 Flow in timber 544 41.8.1 Bulk flow and permeability 546 41.8.1.1 Flow of fluids 546 41.8.1.2 Flow paths in timber 547 41.8.1.3 Timber and the laws of flow 550 41.8.2 Moisture diffusion 551 41.8.3 Thermal conductivity 552 References 553 42. Deformation in timber 556 42.1 Introduction 556 42.2 Dimensional change due to moisture 556 42.2.1 Shrinkage 556 42.2.1.1 Anisotropy in shrinkage 556 42.2.1.2 Practical significance 558 42.2.2 Movement 558 42.3 Thermal movement 560 42.4 Deformation under load 561 42.4.1 Elastic deformation 562 42.4.1.1 Orthotropic elasticity and timber 565 42.4.1.2 Factors influencing the elastic modulus 565 42.4.2 Viscoelastic deformation 571 42.4.2.1 Creep 572 References 584 43. Strength and failure in timber 588 43.1 Introduction 588 43.2 Determination of strength 588 43.2.1 Test piece size and selection 588 43.2.1.1 Use of small clear test pieces 589 43.2.1.2 Use of structural-size test pieces 589 43.2.2 Standardised test procedures 589 43.3 Strength values 589 43.3.1 Derived using small clear test pieces 589 43.3.2 Derived using structural-size test pieces 591 43.4 Variability in strength values 592 43.5 Inter-relationships among the strength properties 593 43.5.1 Modulus of rupture (bending strength) and modulus of elasticity 593 43.5.2 Impact bending and total work 593 43.5.3 Hardness and compression perpendicular to the grain 593 43.6 Factors affecting strength 593 43.6.1 Anisotropy and grain angle 594 43.6.2 Knots 595 43.6.3 Density 595 43.6.4 Ring width 596 43.6.5 Ratio of latewood to earlywood 597 43.6.6 Cell length 598 43.6.7 Microfibrillar angle 598 43.6.8 Chemical composition 598 43.6.9 Reaction wood 599 43.6.9.1 Compression wood 599 43.6.9.2 Tension wood 599 43.6.10 Moisture content 599 43.6.11 Temperature 600 43.6.12 Time 601 43.6.12.1 Rate of loading 602 43.6.12.2 Duration of load 602 43.7 Strength, toughness, failure and fracture morphology 604 43.7.1 Classical approach 604 43.7.1.1 Tensile strength parallel to the grain 604 43.7.1.2 Compression strength parallel to the grain 607 43.7.1.3 Static bending 609 43.7.1.4 Toughness 609 43.7.1.5 Fatigue 610 43.7.2 Engineering approach to strength and fracture 612 43.8 Structural design in timber 612 43.8.1 Visual grading 612 43.8.2 Machine grading 613 43.8.3 Strength classes 613 43.8.4 Structural design 613 References 615 44. Durability of timber 618 44.1 Introduction 618 44.2 Chemical, physical and mechanical agencies affecting durability and causing degradation 618 44.2.1 Photochemical degradation 618 44.2.2 Chemical degradation 619 44.2.3 Thermal degradation 619 44.2.4 Mechanical degradation 619 44.3 Natural durability and attack by fungi and insects 620 44.3.1 Natural durability 620 44.3.2 Nature of fungal decay 622 44.3.3 Nature of insect attack 623 44.3.4 Marine borers 624 44.4 Performance of timber in fire 624 44.4.1 Methods of assessing reaction to fire of constructional materials 626 44.4.1.1 The U.K. position 627 44.4.1.2 The use of national and CEN standards 627 References 628 45. Processing and recycling of timber 630 45.1 Introduction 630 45.2 Mechanical processing 630 45.2.1 Solid timber 630 45.2.1.1 Sawing and planing 630 45.2.1.2 Steam bending 632 45.2.2 Wood-based panels (board materials) 632 45.2.2.1 Plywood 633 45.2.2.2 Particleboard (chipboard) 635 45.2.2.3 MDF (dry-process fibreboard) 636 45.2.2.4 Wet-process fibreboard 636 45.2.2.5 OSB (oriented strand board) 637 45.2.2.6 CBPB (cement bonded particleboard) 637 45.2.2.7 Comparative performance of the wood-based boards 637 45.2.3 Laminated timber 638 45.2.4 Engineered structural lumber 640 45.2.5 Mechanical pulping 640 45.2.6 Recycling of timber waste 641 45.2.6.1 Case study 1 642 45.2.6.2 Case study 2 642 45.2.6.3 Case study 3 642 45.3 Chemical processing 642 45.3.1 Treatability 642 45.3.1.1 Preservatives and preservation 643 45.3.1.2 Flame retardants 645 45.3.1.3 Dimensional stabilisers and durability enhancers 646 45.3.2 Chemical pulping 647 45.3.3 Other chemical processes 648 45.4 Thermal processing 649 45.5 Finishes 649 45.5.1 Flame-retardant coatings 651 References 652 Example questions for Part VII Timber 654 Further reading for Part VII Timber 655 Part VIII: Masonry: Brickwork, blockwork and stonework 658 46. Materials and components for masonry 662 46.1 Basic terminology 662 46.2 Materials used for manufacture of units and mortars 664 46.2.1 Rocks, sand and fillers 664 46.2.1.1 Rock (or stone) 664 46.2.1.2 Sand: Nature and composition 664 46.2.1.3 Mortar and rendering sands 664 46.2.1.4 Fly ash (pulverised fuel ash) 665 46.2.1.5 Chalk (CaCO3) 665 46.2.2 Clays 665 46.2.3 Lightweight aggregates 666 46.2.4 Binders 667 46.2.4.1 Cement 667 46.2.4.2 Masonry cement 667 46.2.4.3 Lime and hydraulic lime 667 46.2.4.4 Calcium silicate 668 46.3 Other constituents and additives 668 46.3.1 Organic plasticisers 668 46.3.2 Latex additives 668 46.3.3 Pigments 669 46.3.4 Retarders 669 46.3.5 Accelerators 669 46.4 Mortar 669 46.4.1 Properties of freshly mixed (unset) mortar 670 46.4.2 Properties of hardened mortar 671 46.4.3 Thin-bed and lightweight mortars 673 46.5 Fired clay bricks and blocks 673 46.5.1 Forming and firing 673 46.5.1.1 Soft mud process 673 46.5.1.2 Stiff plastic process 674 46.5.1.3 Wirecut process 674 46.5.1.4 Semi-dry pressing 675 46.5.1.5 Drying and firing in Hoffman kilns 675 46.5.1.6 Drying and firing in tunnel kilns 676 46.5.1.7 Clamps 677 46.5.1.8 Intermittent kilns 677 46.5.2 Properties 677 46.6 Calcium silicate units 680 46.7 Concrete and manufactured stone units 680 46.7.1 Production processes for concrete units 681 46.7.1.1 Casting concrete 681 46.7.1.2 Pressing of concrete 681 46.7.1.3 Curing 681 46.7.2 Concrete products 682 46.7.2.1 Dense aggregate concrete blocks and concrete bricks 682 46.7.2.2 Manufactured stone masonry units 682 46.7.2.3 Lightweight aggregate concrete blocks 683 46.8 Aircrete (AAC) 683 46.8.1 Manufacturing process 684 46.8.2 Properties 684 46.9 Natural stone units 685 46.10 Ancillary devices 685 References 686 47. Masonry construction and forms 688 47.1 Walls and other masonry forms 688 47.2 Bond patterns 690 47.3 Use of specials 692 47.4 Joint style 694 47.5 Workmanship and accuracy 694 47.6 Buildability, site efficiency and productivity 694 47.7 Appearance 695 References 695 48. Structural behaviour and movement of masonry 696 48.1 General considerations 696 48.2 Compressive loading 698 48.2.1 Axial loads 698 48.2.2 Stability: Slender structures and eccentricity 701 48.2.3 Concentrated load 702 48.2.4 Cavity walls in compression 703 48.3 Shear loading 703 48.4 Flexure (bending) 705 48.5 Tension 708 48.6 Elastic modulus 709 48.7 Building (seismic) behaviour 710 48.8 Movement and creep 711 References 712 49. Non-structural physical properties of masonry 714 49.1 Thermal performance 714 49.2 Resistance to damp and rain penetration 716 49.3 Moisture vapour permeability 717 49.4 Sound transmission 718 49.5 Fire resistance 718 References 719 50. Deterioration, conservation and strengthening of masonry 720 50.1 Chemical attack 720 50.1.1 Water and acid rain 720 50.1.2 Carbonation 722 50.1.3 Sulphate attack 722 50.1.4 Acids 723 50.1.5 Chlorides 723 50.1.6 Corrosion of embedded metals 723 50.2 Erosion 723 50.2.1 Freeze–thaw attack 724 50.2.2 Crypto-efflorescence (sub-florescence) damage 725 50.2.3 Abrasion 725 50.3 Stress effects 726 50.4 Staining 726 50.4.1 Efflorescence 726 50.4.2 Lime staining 727 50.4.3 Iron staining 727 50.4.4 Biological staining 727 50.5 Conservation of masonry 728 50.5.1 Principles 728 50.5.2 Replacement materials: Stone 729 50.5.3 Replacement materials: Clay bricks, terracotta ware, concrete and calcium silicate units 730 50.5.4 Replacement materials: Mortars 730 50.5.5 Selection of replacement materials 731 50.5.6 Repair methods 731 50.5.7 Cleaning of masonry 731 50.6 Strengthening of masonry 732 50.6.1 Strengthening of structural elements 732 50.6.2 Upgrading of connections 733 50.6.3 Improvement of the global building behaviour 733 References 734 Example questions for Part VIII Masonry: Brickwork, blockwork and stonework 736 Further reading for Part VIII Masonry: Brickwork, blockwork and stonework 737 Part IX: Bituminous materials 744 51. Components of bituminous materials 748 51.1 Constituents of bituminous materials 748 51.2 Bitumen 748 51.2.1 Sources 748 51.2.1.1 Natural asphalts 748 51.2.1.2 Refinery bitumen 749 51.2.2 Manufacture 749 51.2.3 Chemistry and molecular structure 749 51.2.4 Physical and rheological properties 750 51.3 Types of bitumen 751 51.3.1 Penetration grade bitumens 751 51.3.2 Oxidised bitumens 751 51.3.3 Cutbacks 751 51.3.4 Emulsions 752 51.3.5 Polymer-modified bitumens 754 51.4 Aggregates 754 51.4.1 Properties 754 References 756 52. Viscosity, stiffness and deformation of bituminous materials 758 52.1 Viscosity and rheology of binders 758 52.2 Empirical measurements of viscosity 758 52.3 Measurement of viscosity 760 52.4 Influence of temperature on viscosity 761 52.5 Resistance of bitumens to deformation 763 52.6 Determination of permanent deformation 764 52.7 Factors affecting permanent deformation 765 52.7.1 Bitumen viscosity 765 52.7.2 Aggregate 765 52.7.3 Temperature 765 References 766 53. Strength and failure of bituminous materials 768 53.1 The road structure 768 53.2 Modes of failure in a bituminous structure 768 53.3 Fatigue characteristics 770 53.3.1 Stress and strain conditions 771 53.3.2 The strain criteria 772 53.3.3 Effect of mixture variables 773 References 774 54. Durability of bituminous mixtures 776 54.1 Ageing of bitumen 776 54.1.1 Oxidation 776 54.1.2 Loss of volatiles 776 54.1.3 Ageing index 777 54.1.4 Bitumen ageing tests 777 54.2 Permeability 778 54.2.1 Measurement and voids analysis 779 54.2.2 Factors affecting permeability 779 54.3 Adhesion 780 54.3.1 The nature of the aggregate 780 54.3.2 The nature of the bitumen 781 54.3.3 Mechanisms for loss of adhesion 781 54.3.3.1 Displacement 781 54.3.3.2 Detachment 782 54.3.3.3 Film rupture 783 54.3.3.4 Blistering and pitting 784 54.3.3.5 Spontaneous emulsification 784 54.3.3.6 Hydraulic scouring 784 54.3.3.7 Pore pressure 785 References 785 55. Design and production of bituminous materials 786 55.1 Bituminous mixtures 786 55.1.1 Asphalt concretes 786 55.1.2 Hot rolled asphalts 786 55.1.3 Porous asphalt 787 55.1.4 Stone mastic asphalt 788 55.2 Recipe and designed mixtures 789 55.3 Methods of production 791 References 793 56. Recycling of bituminous materials 794 56.1 In-plant asphalt recycling 794 56.1.1 Hot in-plant operations 795 56.1.2 Cold in-plant processes 796 56.2 In situ asphalt recycling 796 56.2.1 Hot in situ asphalt recycling 796 56.2.1.1 Repave 796 56.2.1.2 Remix 796 56.2.2 Cold in situ processes 797 56.3 Issues related to asphalt recycling 798 56.3.1 Black rock 798 56.3.2 Material variability 798 References 798 Example questions for Part IX Bituminous materials 800 Further reading for Part IX Bituminous materials 801 Part X: Selection and sustainable use of construction materials 804 57. Mechanical properties of materials 806 57.1 Ranges of properties 806 57.2 Specific stiffness and specific strength 809 Reference 810 58. Sustainability and construction materials 812 58.1 Global considerations 812 58.2 Sustainability and the construction industry 815 58.2.1 Use of materials 815 58.2.2 Life-cycle assessment 816 58.2.3 The green hierarchy 818 58.3 Steel 820 58.4 Aggregates 821 58.5 Cement and concrete 822 58.5.1 Cement 822 58.5.2 Aggregates for concrete 825 58.5.3 Concrete 826 58.6 Asphalt and bituminous materials 827 58.7 Masonry 827 58.8 Glass 828 58.9 Polymers and fibre composites 828 58.10 Timber 829 References 830 Further reading 832 Index 834 Content: Part I: FundamentalsRevised and updated by Peter Domone and Marios Soutsos, with acknowledgment to the previous authors Bill Biggs, Ian McColl and Bob MoonChapter 1: Atoms, Bonding, Energy and EquilibriumChapter 2: Mechanical Properties of Solids Chapter 3: Structure of SolidsChapter 4: Fracture and ToughnessChapter 5: Liquids, Viscoelasticity and GelsChapter 7: Electrical and Thermal Properties Example Questions Further Reading Part II: Metals and AlloysRevised and updated Marios Soutsos and Peter Domone, with acknowledgment to the previous authors Bill Biggs, Ian McColl and Bob MoonChapter 8: Deformation and Strengthening of MetalsChapter 9: Forming of MetalsChapter 10: Oxidation and CorrosionChapter 11: Iron and SteelChapter 12: AluminiumExample Questions Further Reading Part III: Concrete Marios Soutsos and Peter DomoneChapter 13: Portland CementsChapter 14: AdmixturesChapter 15: AdditionsChapter 16: Other Types of CementChapter 17: Aggregates for ConcreteChapter 18: Properties of Fresh ConcreteChapter 19: Early Age Properties of ConcreteChapter 20: Deformation of ConcreteChapter 21: Strength and Failure of ConcreteChapter 22: Concrete Mix DesignChapter 23: Non-Destructive Testing of Hardened ConcreteChapter 24: Durability of ConcreteChapter 25: Special ConcretesChapter 26: Recycling of ConcreteExample Questions Further Reading Part IV: PolymersRevised and updated by Vasileios Koutsos with acknowledgement to the previous author Len HollowayChapter 27: Polymer Types, Properties and ApplicationsFurther Reading Part V: Fibre Composites FRP and FRCPhilip PurnellChapter 28: Reinforcing Fibre MaterialsChapter 29: Reinforcing Fibre ArchitectureChapter 30: MatricesChapter 31: Interfaces and BondingChapter 32: Mechanical Behaviour and Properties of Composites Chapter 33: Manufacture of Fibre CompositesChapter 34: Applications of Fibre Composites in Construction.Chapter 35: Durability Chapter 36: RecyclingFurther Reading Part VI: GlassGraham DoddChapter 37: Manufacture and ProcessingChapter 38: Properties and PerformanceChapter 39: Design and ApplicationsChapter 40: Service and End of LifeFurther ReadingPart VII: Timber John DinwoodieChapter 41: Structure of Timber and the Presence of MoistureChapter 42: Deformation in TimberChapter 43: Strength and Failure in TimberChapter 44: Durability of TimberChapter 45: Processing and Recycling of TimberExample QuestionsAcknowledgment, Further Reading and Sources of Information Part VIII: Masonry Revised and updated by Paulo B. Lourenco with acknowledgment to the previous author Bob de VekeyChapter 46: Materials and Components for Masonry Chapter 47: Masonry Construction and FormsChapter 48: Structural Behaviour and Movement of MasonryChapter 49: Non-Structural Physical Properties of MasonryChapter 50: Deterioration, Conservation and Strengthening of MasonryExample QuestionsFurther Reading and Sources of Information Part IX: Bituminous MaterialsGordon D. AireyChapter 51: Components of Bituminous MaterialsChapter 52: Viscosity, Stiffness and Deformation of Bituminous MaterialsChapter 53: Strength and Failure of Bituminous MaterialsChapter 54: Durability of Bituminous MixturesChapter 55: Design and Production of Bituminous MaterialsChapter 56: Recycling of Bituminous MaterialsExample QuestionsFurther Reading Part X: Selection and Sustainable Use of MaterialsMarios Soutsos and Peter DomoneChapter 57: Mechanical Properties of MaterialsChapter 58: Sustainability and Construction Materials "This established textbook provides an understanding of materials' behaviour through knowledge of their chemical and physical structure. It covers the main classes of construction materials: metals, concrete, other ceramics (including bricks and masonry), polymers, fibre composites, bituminous materials, timber, and glass. It provides a clear and comprehensive perspective on the whole range of materials used in modern construction, to form a must-have for civil and structural engineering students, and those on courses such as architecture, surveying and construction. It begins with a Fundamentals section followed by a section on each of the major groups of materials. In this new edition:- The section on fibre composites FRP and FRC has been completely restructured and updated.- Typical questions with answers to any numerical examples are given at the end of each section, as well as an instructor's manual with further questions and answers.- The links in all parts have also been updated and extended, including links to free reports from The Concrete Centre, as well as other online resources and material suppliers' websites."--Provided by publisher