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The new edition of Crew Resource Management reflects advancements made in the conceptual foundation as well as the methods and approaches of applying CRM in the aviation industry. Because CRM training has the practical goal of enhancing flight safety through more effective flight crew performance, this new edition adapts itself to fit the users, the task, and operational and regulatory environments--all of which continually evolve. Each contributor examines techniques and presents cases that best illustrate CRM concepts and training. This book discusses the history and research foundation of CRM and also stresses the importance of making adaptive changes and advancements. New chapters include: CRM and Individual Resilience; Flight and Cabin Crew Teamwork: Improving Safety in Aviation: CRM and Risk Management/Safety Management Systems; and MRM for Technical Operations. This book provides a deep understanding of CRM--what it is, how it works, and how to practically implement an effective program. Addresses the expanded operating environment--pilots, flight attendants, maintenance, etc. Assists developers and practitioners in building effective programs Describes best practices and tools for supporting CRM training in individual organizations Highlights new advances and approaches to CRM Includes five completely new chapters Cover Crew Resource Management Copyright A Story of Robert L. Helmreich: A Convergence of Friends and Colleagues 1 Life history 2 Undersea Habitats—Sealab II and Tektite 3 Reconceptualizing Psychological Masculinity and Femininity 4 Developing Cockpit Resource Management 5 Developing Line Operations Safety Audits 6 Conceptualizing Flight as Threat and Error Management 7 Carrying Group Performance Concepts and Methods Into Medicine and Beyond 8 Retirement to Granite Shoals, Texas 9 Impact 10 The Private Man References Further Reading List of Contributors Foreword Preface Part 1: Nature of CRM Part 2: CRM Training Applications Part 3: CRM Perspectives Part I: The Nature of CRM 1 Why CRM? Empirical and Theoretical Bases of Human Factors Training* 1.1 The Evolution and Growth of CRM 1.1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Single-Pilot Tradition in Aviation 1.3 Human Error in Flight Operations 1.4 Group Processes and Performance in the Aviation Environment 1.4.1 Outcome Factors 1.4.2 Input Factors Individual Factors Group Factors Organizational Factors Environmental Factors Regulatory Factors 1.4.3 A Case Study: The Interplay of Multiple Input Factors in a Crash 1.4.4 Group Process Factors 1.4.5 Elaborating Group Process Factors Team Formation and Management Tasks Communications Processes and Decision Tasks Situation Awareness, Workload Management Tasks Machine Interface Tasks 1.5 Theoretical Leveraging of CRM Training 1.5.1 Optimizing Input Factors Individual Factors Organizational Factors Regulatory Factors 1.5.2 Enhancing Group Process Factors 1.6 The Evolution of CRM Training 1.7 CRM and Traditional Management Development Training 1.8 Research Findings 1.9 Open Issues for Research 1.10 Conclusions 1.11 CRM Redux (2010) 1.11.1 Culture 1.11.2 Acquiring and Using Safety Data 1.11.3 Expansion of CRM Into New Domains Medicine Firefighting 1.11.4 The Future Acknowledgments (1993) References Further Reading 2 Teamwork and Organizational Factors Introduction 2.1 Updating the Definition of CRM 2.2 The Team at the Sharp End 2.3 Traits of a Good Cockpit Team 2.4 Errors and the Support Teams and Processes That Resolve Them 2.5 Structuring Teamwork Through Standard Operating Procedures 2.6 The Airline and Its Cultures 2.7 Developing SOPs 2.8 The Organizational Culture Link to Safety 2.9 Safety Culture 2.10 Summary References Further Reading 3 Crews as Groups: Their Formation and Their Leadership 3.1 Individual Versus Crew Orientation 3.2 Crews, Groups, and Teams 3.2.1 Boundaries 3.2.2 Roles Role Conflict Role Ambiguity 3.2.3 Norms 3.2.4 Status 3.2.5 Authority 3.2.6 Group Dynamics 3.3 Group Process and Leverage 3.4 Leadership 3.5 Leadership at Formation: A Critical Leverage Point 3.5.1 Task Findings 3.5.2 Boundary Findings 3.5.3 Norms Findings 3.5.4 Authority Dynamics Findings Establishing Appropriate Authority 3.6 Organizational Shells 3.7 Implications for Effective Crew Leadership 3.7.1 Undermining 3.7.2 Abdicating 3.7.3 Affirming 3.7.4 Elaborating and Expanding 3.8 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 4 Communication and Crew Resource Management Introduction 4.1 Historical View of Communication and Flight Safety 4.1.1 NTSB Accident Reports 4.1.2 Incident Reports 4.1.3 Early Communication Research Accident Cockpit Voice Recorder Transcripts Field Studies Simulation Studies 4.1.4 The Communication Concept 4.2 Functions of Communication 4.2.1 Information Transfer 4.2.2 Interpersonal/Team Relationships 4.2.3 Predictable Behavior 4.2.4 Task Monitoring and Situation Awareness 4.2.5 Crew and Workload Management 4.3 Issues and Advances in Communication 4.3.1 Communication Research 4.3.2 Communication and Investigation Pegasus Launch Procedures Anomaly Communication Context 4.3.3 Communication and CRM Training 4.3.4 Communication and CRM Evaluation 4.3.5 Cross-Functional Communication 4.3.6 Effect of Digital Technologies on Communication 4.3.7 Organizational Communication Concepts 4.4 Summary Acknowledgments References 5 Flight Crew Decision-Making Introduction 5.1 Naturalistic Decision-Making—A Theoretical Framework for Aeronautical Decision-Making 5.1.1 The Role of Expertise 5.1.2 Domain-Specific Models 5.1.3 Methods for Conducting Naturalistic Decision-Making Research 5.2 A Naturalistic Aeronautical Decision-Making Model (NADM) 5.2.1 NDM Methodology and Data Sources for NADM 5.2.2 An Updated Aeronautical Decision-Making Model Front-End Processing: Situation Assessment Back-End Processing: Choosing a Course of Action Rule-based or RPD Decisions Multiple-Option Decisions Ill-Defined Problems 5.3 What Factors Make Decisions Difficult? 5.3.1 Decision Errors: Outcome Versus Process 5.3.2 How Can Decision Processes Go Wrong? Faulty Situation Assessment Susceptibility to Automation Bias Faulty Selection of Course of Action Inadequate Risk Assessment Plan Continuation Errors 5.3.3 Error Inducing Contexts Information Quality Organizational Pressures Environmental Threats and Stressors 5.3.4 Cognitive Factors in Decision Errors Lack of Knowledge Schema-Based Decisions or Habit Capture Navigating the Hybrid Ecology 5.3.5 Personal and Social Factors 5.4 Behaviors That Characterize Effective Crew Decision-Making 5.4.1 Taskwork Skills 5.4.2 Teamwork Skills 5.5 Training Crews to Make Better Decisions 5.5.1 Aeronautical Decision-Making Training 5.5.2 NDM-Based Training Situation Assessment Selecting a Course of Action Metacognitive Training 5.5.3 Monitoring Skills 5.5.4 Communication Training Build Shared Situation Models Establish a Positive Crew Climate Through Briefings Monitor and Challenge Threats and Errors 5.5.5 Develop Accurate System Mental Models 5.6 Conclusions: The Future of Aviation Decision-Making Acknowledgments References 6 CRM (Nontechnical) Skills: A European Perspective Introduction 6.1 CRM Training 6.1.1 Content of CRM Training Automation Monitoring and Intervention Resilience Development Surprise and Startle Effects Operator’s Safety Culture and Company Culture 6.1.2 CRM Trainers 6.1.3 Evidence-Based Training 6.2 Nontechnical (CRM) Skills Assessment 6.2.1 Nontechnical Skills Assessment Within Competency Frameworks 6.2.2 The Assessment of NTS Using the NOTECHS System 6.2.3 Failing an Assessment of Nontechnical Skills 6.3 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 7 Crew Resource Management and Individual Resilience Introduction 7.1 The Nature of “Resilience” 7.2 Is Resilience Just Threat and Error Management? 7.3 The Consequences of Resilience Failures 7.4 Resilience Success Stories in Aviation 7.4.1 Qantas Flight QF 32 7.4.2 US Airways Flight 1549 7.4.3 United Airlines Flight 232 7.5 Startle, Surprise, and Resilience 7.6 Individual Versus Team Resilience 7.7 CRM Skills and Their Relationship to Resilience 7.8 Developing Individual and Crew Resilience Through Effective CRM Skills 7.8.1 Situational Awareness 7.8.2 Decision-Making 7.8.3 Communication 7.8.4 Workload Management 7.8.5 Stress Management 7.8.6 Fatigue Management 7.9 Conclusion References 8 Crew Resource Management, Risk, and Safety Management Systems 8.1 Safety Management Systems 8.2 CRM Interfaces With SMS 8.3 Incorporating Risk and Response Into CRM Training 8.4 Expectations About SMS and CRM in the Future 8.5 Conclusion References Part II: CRM Training Applications 9 The Design, Delivery, and Evaluation of Crew Resource Management Training Introduction 9.1 What Is Training Evaluation? 9.1.1 Training Evaluation 9.1.2 Training Effectiveness 9.1.3 Merging Training Evaluation & Training Effectiveness 9.2 Why Is Evaluation of CRM Training Necessary? 9.3 How Has CRM Training Been Evaluated in the Past? 9.3.1 CRM Training Evaluation 9.3.2 Reactions 9.3.3 Learning 9.3.4 Behaviors 9.3.5 Results 9.3.6 CRM Training Effectiveness 9.4 Summary 9.5 How Should CRM Training Be Assessed in the Future? 9.5.1 A Framework for CRM Training Design, Development, & Evaluation 9.5.2 Guidelines for CRM Training Evaluation 9.6 Summary 9.7 Concluding Remarks Acknowledgement References 10 Line Oriented Flight Training: A Practical Guide for Developers Introduction 10.1 Basic Definitions 10.2 History and Context: Simulation and CRM Come of Age at the Same Time 10.2.1 Simulation 10.2.2 CRM Is Integrated With Technical Skills 10.2.3 A Standardized Approach 10.3 Practical Guide to LOFT and LOE Development Using the Instructional Systems Development Process 10.3.1 Analysis Prerequisite Skills Learning Goals and Objectives Learning Goals Learning Objectives To Summarize 10.3.2 Design Event Sets Other Characteristics of Event Sets General Scripting Considerations How Many Event Sets in a LOS? Recurrent Training Versus Qualification Training Level of Difficulty Multiple Branches for Each Scenario Available Resources and Limitations Documenting Event Sets, Objectives, and Observable Behaviors 10.3.3 Development Training Device Considerations Preposition, Reposition, and Repeat Points Systems Malfunctions Weather Communications ATC Modeling Preprogramming Triggers Flight Papers and Documents to Support the Simulated World Real World Changes That May Impact Your Scenario A Note About LOE Versus LOFT Instructor Materials Developing Grade Forms Grade Forms Assist in Data Mining and Analysis Electronic Forms Beta Testing: Evaluate and Revise Paperwork Delivery Consider FAA and Management Requirements Line Pilot Review 10.3.4 Implementation Organizational Expectations Train the Trainer Training the Debrief Training the Grade Forms LOS Development as a Driver for Procedural Quality 10.3.5 Evaluation Data Collection Data Analysis 10.4 Customizing LOS Production for Different Organizations 10.5 An Argument in Favor of LOS as a Continued, Valuable Training Strategy 10.5.1 The Paradox of Success References Further Reading 11 Line Operations Simulation Development Tools Introduction 11.1 Flight Training 11.1.1 Line Operational Simulations 11.1.2 Types of LOS LOS for Training LOS for Performance Evaluation Summary of LOS Types 11.2 Developing LOS Scenarios 11.2.1 Objective Identification Identifying Target Skills Identifying Aviation Events Summary 11.2.2 Scenario Building Combining Events Instructor Workload Summary 11.2.3 Scenario Assessment Assessment of LOS Assessment of Performance Summary 11.3 Need for Developmental Tools 11.3.1 Safety Report Databases 11.3.2 RRLOS 11.4 Conclusion References 12 Crew Resource Management and Line Operations Safety Audit* Introduction 12.1 CRM Description 12.2 Company Operations Plan 12.3 LOSA Definition 12.4 Line Operations Safety Audit 12.4.1 The LOSA History 12.4.2 The LOSA Process 12.4.3 Synthesis of the TEM Framework from the LOSA Data Tsunami 12.5 Flight Crew Performance and Procedural Drift 12.6 The Safety Change Process and Safety Management Systems 12.7 Summary 12.8 Questions and Answers Author’s Perspective (2010) References Further Reading 13 Maintenance Resource Management for Technical Operations Introduction 13.1 Historical Overview 13.1.1 First Generation 13.1.2 Second Generation 13.1.3 Third Generation 13.1.4 Fourth Generation 13.1.5 Fifth Generation 13.1.6 Sixth Generation 13.2 MRM Research Program 13.2.1 FAA–TC–UK CAA 13.2.2 Government–Academia–Industry 13.3 MRM Training Content and Delivery 13.3.1 MRM Training Content 13.3.2 Delivery Options 13.4 Results of MRM Training 13.4.1 Key Findings Across all Generations of this Research Program MRM Training Programs, in General, Are Effective in Raising Awareness About Human Performance Limitations and Have Been Cor... Individual Professionalism and Interpersonal Trust Are Two Key Indicators of Safety Climate/Culture in Aviation Maintenance Aircraft Maintenance Engineers/Technicians Are Among the Most Individualistic People in Aviation Return-On-Investment (ROI) for MRM Training Can Be Demonstrated MRM Programs Have Had a Profound Impact on the Safety Culture Across the Global Aviation Maintenance Community 13.4.2 Implications for the Future 13.5 Incident Review Tools and Taxonomies 13.5.1 Maintenance Error Decision Aid 13.5.2 HFACS for Maintenance 13.5.3 LOSA in Maintenance and Ramp Operations 13.6 Influence on Safety Culture in Technical Operations 13.6.1 Shared Values, Beliefs, and Assumptions 13.6.2 Role of Leaders and Influencers 13.6.3 MRM as a Planned Intervention 13.6.4 Performance Outcomes 13.6.5 Artifacts 13.7 Conclusions References 14 Flight and Cabin Crew Teamwork: Improving Safety in Aviation 14.1 CRM in the Cabin 14.2 Two Cultural and Geographical Environments 14.3 September 11 Security Measures Added 14.4 Training Trends 14.5 Joint CRM Training 14.6 A Caveat to Joint Training 14.7 Delivery of Joint Training 14.8 Other Joint Team CRM Building Concepts 14.8.1 Observation Flights 14.8.2 Preflight Briefings 14.9 Conclusion References 15 The Migration of Crew Resource Management Training 15.1 Beyond the Flight Deck 15.2 The Maritime Industry 15.2.1 Rationale for CRM Training in the Maritime Industry 15.2.2 Development of Maritime CRM 15.2.3 Aim of Bridge Resource Management Training 15.2.4 Maritime Resource Management (MRM) Training 15.2.5 MRM Training Delivery 15.2.6 Competency Standards for Nontechnical Skills 15.3 CRM in Health Care 15.3.1 Rationale for CRM in Health Care 15.3.2 Anaesthesia Crisis Resource Management (ACRM) 15.3.3 Effectiveness of Anaesthesia Crisis Resource Management 15.3.4 Other Adaptations of CRM in Health Care 15.3.5 Emergency Team Coordination Course 15.3.6 NeoSim 15.3.7 Team Resource Management 15.3.8 Other Developments in Health Care 15.3.9 The Use of Behavioral Markers in Health Care 15.4 The Rail Industry 15.4.1 Rationale for CRM in the Rail Industry 15.4.2 Development of CRM in the Rail Industry 15.4.3 Current Adaptations of CRM in the Rail Industry Canadian Pacific Railway Federal Railroad Administration Texas Transportation Institute 15.4.4 Developments in the Australian Rail Industry The Australian National Rail Resource Management Project Queensland Rail’s Confidential Observations of Rail Safety (CORS) Program Developments in the UK 15.5 Offshore Industry 15.5.1 Rationale for CRM in the Offshore Industry 15.5.2 Adaptations of CRM to the Offshore Industry CRM for Offshore Control Room Operators CRM for Offshore Installation Managers and Emergency Response Teams Emergency Resource Management—Elf Norge CRM for Offshore Production Installation Crews The Use of Behavioral Markers 15.6 Future Migration References Further Reading Part III: CRM Perspectives 16 A Regulatory Perspective* Introduction 16.1 Aviation Regulation—A Brief Primer1 16.2 Regulatory Requirements and Guidance for Crew Resource Management—Flight Deck 16.2.1 Airworthiness Requirements for Equipment Design—Examples 16.2.2 Flight Crew Training and Qualification Requirements 16.2.3 Flight Crew Procedures 16.3 Future Considerations 16.4 Concluding Remarks References 17 A Regulatory Perspective II* Introduction 17.1 Historical Perspective 17.2 From Assessment to Evaluation 17.3 Measuring and Grading CRM 17.4 The Role of the Regulator 17.4.1 Regulatory Flexibility 17.4.2 Rules 17.4.3 Policy 17.4.4 Rewarding Best Practices Voluntary Safety Programs 17.5 Funding Research 17.5.1 Human Factors Research 17.5.2 Crew Resource Management Evaluator Calibration Leadership/Followership Advanced Crew Resource Management (ACRM) Facilitated Debriefing Techniques 17.6 The CRM Frameworks 17.6.1 The Six CRM Frameworks Building the CRM toolbox 17.6.2 The Air Carrier Training Aviation Rule-making Committee (ACT-ARC) 17.6.3 The State-of-the-Art Study (1999–2014) 17.7 Future Trends References Further Reading 18 The Accident Investigator’s Perspective 18.1 Introduction and Background Information 18.1.1 Background Information 18.1.2 The Accident Investigator’s Perspective 18.2 Leadership, Communications, and Following SOPs 18.2.1 Leadership 18.2.2 Communication 18.2.3 Adherence to Standard Operating Procedures 18.3 Situation Awareness 18.3.1 Monitoring of the Aircraft Flight Path 18.3.2 Workload Management 18.3.3 Managing Flight Deck Automation 18.4 More to be Done 18.5 Summary References 19 The Military Perspective Introduction 19.1 Civilian Versus Military CRM training 19.2 Current Military Approaches to CRM Training 19.2.1 United States Navy-Marine Corps 19.2.2 United States Air Force 19.2.3 United States Army 19.2.4 United States Coast Guard 19.2.5 Non-US Military 19.3 The Effectiveness of Military CRM Training 19.4 The Future of CRM Training in the Military 19.5 Conclusion References Further Reading 20 Cultural Issues and Crew Resource Management Training Introduction 20.1 Cultural Issues in Crew Resource Management 20.1.1 The Use of Line Pilots as CRM Facilitators 20.1.2 Strengthening the Role of the First Officer 20.1.3 CRM Cultural Adaptations 20.1.4 Integration of CRM Into Checking and Training 20.1.5 Cultural Mistakes About Extending CRM Training 20.1.6 Cultural Experiences About the Introduction of Threat & Error Management 20.2 Conclusion 20.2.1 The Future of CRM Outside the United States References 21 Airline Pilots, Training, and CRM in Today’s Environment Introduction 21.1 Today’s Environment and Market for Pilots 21.2 Some Effects of the Colgan 3407 Accident and Investigation 21.3 Regulations, Advisory Circulars, ICAO Guidance 21.4 Handling Big Data and Voluntary Reporting Systems 21.5 Unexpected Cultural Factors 21.6 Training—The Primary Interface 21.7 Selection of Training Devices 21.8 Training Automation 21.9 Automation Surprises 21.10 Automation Does Not Reduce Training Requirements 21.11 Reducing Levels of Automation—What’s Changed? 21.12 Implications of Design Philosophies 21.13 The Manufacturer’s Challenge of Understanding the Operational Environment 21.14 Cockpit Workload 21.15 Maintenance of Manual Flying Skills—Do All Have the Same Foundation? 21.16 Pilots Want and Need More System Knowledge 21.17 Intentional Noncompliance With Procedures 21.18 Current CRM and Human Factors Airline Programs 21.19 Final Thoughts References 22 The Future of CRM References Further Reading Index Back Cover The new edition of __Crew Resource Management__ reflects advancements made in the conceptual foundation as well as the methods and approaches of applying CRM in the aviation industry. Because CRM training has the practical goal of enhancing flight safety through more effective flight crew performance, this new edition adapts itself to fit the users, the task, and operational and regulatory environments--all of which continually evolve. Each contributor examines techniques and presents cases that best illustrate CRM concepts and training. This book discusses the history and research foundation of CRM and also stresses the importance of making adaptive changes and advancements. New chapters include: CRM and Individual Resilience; Flight and Cabin Crew Teamwork: Improving Safety in Aviation: CRM and Risk Management/Safety Management Systems; and MRM for Technical Operations. This book provides a deep understanding of CRM--what it is, how it works, and how to practically implement an effective program.