Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

The design of tall buildings and complex structures involves challenging activities, including: scheme design, modelling, structural analysis and detailed design. This book provides structural designers with a systematic approach to anticipate and solve issues for tall buildings and complex structures. This book begins with a clear and rigorous exposition of theories behind designing tall buildings. After this is an explanation of basic issues encountered in the design process. This is followed by chapters concerning the design and analysis of tall building with different lateral stability systems, such as MRF, shear wall, core, outrigger, bracing, tube system, diagrid system and mega frame. The final three chapters explain the design principles and analysis methods for complex and special structures. With this book, researchers and designers will find a valuable reference on topics such as tall building systems, structure with complex geometry, Tensegrity structures, membrane structures and offshore structures. Key Features Numerous worked-through examples of existing prestigious projects around the world (such as Jeddah Tower, Shanghai Tower, and Petronas Tower etc.) are provided to assist the reader’s understanding of the topic Provides the latest modelling methods in design such as BIM and Parametric Modelling technique Detailed explanations of widely used programs in current design practice, such as SAP2000, ETABS, ANSYS, and Rhino Modelling case studies for all types of tall buildings and complex structures, such as: Buttressed Core system, diagrid system, Tube system, Tensile structures and offshore structures etc. Front matter 1 Cover 1 Copyright page 5 Contents 6 About the author 10 Preface 12 Acknowledgements 14 Chapter 1 16 1.1 Aims and scope 16 1.2 The main design issues of tall and complex structures 17 1.3 Structure of the book 17 References 19 Chapter 2 20 Fundamentals of Tall Building Design 20 Introduction 20 History of Tall Buildings 21 The Lateral Stability System for Tall Buildings 22 Loads on Tall Buildings 33 Dead Loads 33 Live Loads 33 Snow Loads 35 Wind Loads 35 Earthquake Loading 35 Floor System 37 Concrete Floor System 37 Flat Slab 37 Posttensioned Slab System 38 Composite Floor System 39 Solid R.C. or Profiled Metal Deck Floors 39 Precast Slab 39 Slim Floor Construction 40 Composite Truss Floor System 42 Vertical Support Systems 42 Transfer Truss or Roof Truss 43 Inclined Columns 43 Walking Column 44 Earthquake Design 44 Horizontal and Vertical Seismic Actions 45 Structural Analysis Method 48 Response Spectrum Analysis 48 Pushover Analysis 48 Time History 48 Dissipative (Ductile) Structure Design 49 Design Spectrum (Behavior Factor q or Force Reduction Factor R) 49 Ductility Class for Design-Dissipative or Nondissipative Structure 49 Ductile Detailing 50 Concrete Structures 50 Steel Structures 51 Capacity Design 51 Avoiding Soft Story-Strong Column Weak Beam Design 53 Structural Regularity 53 Design for Structural Integrity 54 Masonry Structures 54 Connection Between Superstructure to Foundations 54 Measures to Reduce the Earthquake Response 55 Base Isolation 55 Shock Absorber 56 Damping Systems 56 Wind Load Design 58 Fundamental of Wind Loading 59 Along Wind 60 Wind Pressure 61 Cross Wind 62 Vertex Shedding 63 Wind Drift Design 64 Occupant Comfort and Criteria of Buildings to Wind Induced Vibrations 65 Objective of Occupant Comfort Design 65 Human Perception of Motion 65 Occupant Comfort Design Criteria 65 Mitigation of Building Motions in Design 66 Effects of Neighboring Tall Buildings on Wind 67 Outdoor Human Comfort Design for Pedestrian on the Street 68 Effect of Wind on Outdoor Human Comfort 68 Measures to Improve Outdoor Human Comfort 69 Wind Tunnel Test 70 The Rigid Model Force Balance Tests 70 Aeroelastic Model Study 71 Measurements of Localized Pressures 71 Pedestrian Winds Studies 71 Measures to Reduce the Wind Response 71 Aerodynamics Optimization 72 Damping Systems 72 Design to Prevent Progressive Collapse 73 Design Method to Prevent Progressive Collapse 73 Progressive Collapse Analysis Method 74 Detailed Requirements in Tall Building Design 74 Fire Safety Design 75 The Evacuation Route Design 77 The Compartmentation Design 77 The Structural Fire Design 78 Prescriptive-Based Design 78 Performance-Based Design 78 Structural Fire Analysis 78 Summary 80 Design of Tall Building Under Blast Loading 81 Fundamental of Blast Loading 81 Hazard Mitigating Measures 82 Design a Blast Resistant Structure Members 82 Design and Analysis for Overall Response of Tall Buildings Under Blast Loading 83 Analysis of Building Response Using Pressure-Impulse (Iso-Damage) Diagrams 83 Foundation Design for Tall Buildings 84 Major Design Issues 84 Foundation Types 85 Effect of Soil to the Foundations Under Earthquake Loading 86 Soil-Structure Interaction 86 Construction Methods and Technologies 87 Top-Down Construction 87 Plunge Columns 88 Construction Technology in Burj Khalifa Tower 89 Creep, Shrinkage, and Column Shortening Effect 89 Shortening Analysis 90 Mitigating Column Shortening, Shortening Compensation 90 Cladding 91 References 93 Chapter 3 96 Shear Wall, Core, Outrigger, Belt Truss, and Buttress Core System for Tall Buildings 96 Introduction 96 Shear Wall and Core System 97 Type of Cores 97 Concrete Core 97 Steel-Framed Cores 98 The Importance of Core Design 99 Introduction of Outrigger, Belt Truss, and Buttress Core System 99 Outrigger Structures 100 Types of Outriggers 101 Steel Outriggers 102 Concrete Outriggers 102 Hybrid Outriggers 102 Damped Outrigger 103 Disadvantage of Outriggers 104 Case Study of the Shard 105 Structural System of Shard 106 Structural Analysis Result 108 Belt Truss and Ring Truss System 111 Buttressed Core System 113 Buttress Core System 113 Case Study of Jeddah Tower (Also Known as Kingdom Tower) 115 Aerodynamic Optimization 115 Structural System 116 Result Analysis 117 Analysis Model Set Up Method 120 Summary 120 References 121 Chapter 4 123 Tube System in Tall Building 123 Introduction of Tube Structures 123 Tube-in-Tube System 124 Introduction 124 Case Study of Petronas Tower (Tube-in-Tube) 124 Structural System 125 Result Analysis 127 Model setup methods 130 Framed Tubes 130 Introduction 130 Shear Lag Effect in Framed Tube System 131 Case study of Twin Towers (also called as World Trade Center), New York (Tube Frame Structure) 133 Internal Core 134 Exterior Tube 134 Connection Between Exterior Tube and the Central Core 135 Finite Element Analysis of World Trade Center 136 Braced Tubes Structure (Trussed Tube Structure) 137 Bundled Tube 138 Hybrids Tube System 140 Introduction 140 Case Study of One World Trade Center (Moment Steel Frame+Concrete Core) 140 Structural System 140 Blast Protection Wall 141 Superslender Tall Building Design 141 Key Design Consideration for Superslender Tall Buildings 144 Case Study on Superslender Tower 432 Parke Avenue in New York (Tube-in-Tube) 144 Structural Material 144 Lateral Stability 145 Extra Measure to Limit the Acceleration 146 Case Study on Slender Tower Allianz Tower, Millan 146 Summary 148 Conclusion 148 References 148 Chapter 5 150 Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 150 Introduction 150 Bracing Systems 150 Concentric Bracing 151 Eccentric Bracing 152 Project Examples 155 3D Space Truss System 155 Diagrid Structures 158 Difference Between Exterior Braced Frame Structure and Diagrid Structure 159 Structural System of a Diagrid Structure 159 Diagrid Structure in the World 160 Gherkin, Swiss Re, 30 St Mary Ax 160 Hearst Tower 160 Guangzhou International Finance Centre 161 CCTV Building 162 Poly International Plaza 163 Structural Design Consideration of a Diagrid Structure 164 Structural Features 164 Diagonal Member Design 166 Node Design 166 Optimal Angle of Diagonal Members for Maximum Shear Rigidity 168 Design of the Internal Core in Diagrid Buildings 169 Case study of Guangzhou International Finance Centre 169 3D ETABS Model 170 Modeling Result 171 Moment Resisting Frames 175 Mega Frame Structures (Superframe Structures) 177 Introduction 177 Case Study of the HSBC Headquarters in Hong Kong 177 Case study of China Zun Tower (A Mega Frame Structure) 178 Introduction 178 The Structural System 179 Case Study of Shanghai Tower—Mega Frame Structure 182 The Structural System of the Shanghai Tower 182 Model Setup Methods 185 Conclusion 187 References 188 Chapter 6 189 Design and Analysis of Complex Structures 189 Introduction 189 Examples of Complex Structures 191 Sydney Opera House, Australia 191 King's Cross Western Concourse, UK 192 Shin-Osaka Station, Japan 193 Kyoto Station, Japan 194 Marina Bay Sands Hotel and Art Science Museum, Singapore 194 Marina Bay Sands Complex 195 ArtScience Museum 196 Emirates Air Line Cable Car Supports 196 Beijing National Aquatics Center (Water Cube) Beijing, China 197 Design Considerations in Complex Structures 199 Setting Up the Geometry 200 Space Structure 200 Arch Structure 201 St Pancras International Train Station 201 Wembley Stadium 201 Tied arches, Heathrow Airport T5 203 Summary 203 Design of Supports and Connections 203 Heathrow Airport Terminal 5 205 Barcelona International Airport 206 Complex Structural Analysis Methods 206 Building Information Modeling 207 Introduction 207 Standard Methods and Procedures Protocols 208 Design Liability and Legal Issue of BIM 208 Parametric Design Process 209 What is Parametric Modeling 209 Available Parametric Modeling Programs 210 Rhino 210 SolidWorks 210 CATIA 211 AutoCAD 211 Bentley MicroStation V8 211 Lean Production Work Flow Using Parametric Modeling Process 211 Case Study of Scheme Design of Great Canopy, West Kowloon Cultural District in Hong Kong 212 Case Study of Stadium Design by AECOM 213 Summary of the Workflow Using Parametric Design 213 API and GUI Development for Analysis Program 214 API 215 GUI 215 Example of Set up a 3D Model for Long-Span Structures-Roof of Wembley Stadium 215 Case study of Long-Span Roof in King's Cross St Pancras Station Using Ansys 219 Case Study of Multiphysics Fire Analysis of Building in Cardington Fire Test Using ANSYS 219 Conclusion 222 References 222 Chapter 7 224 7.1 Introduction to tensile structures 224 7.2 General considerations in structural design of tensile membrane structure 234 7.3 Structural analysis of tensile membrane structure 239 7.4 Modeling examples of tensile membrane structure 246 7.5 Introduction to tensegrity structures 248 7.6 Structural analysis of tensegrity structures 250 References 259 Chapter 8 261 Design of Offshore Structures 261 Introduction 261 Oil Platform 261 History of Offshore Platforms 261 Type Oil Platforms 262 Movable Oil Platform 262 Drilling Barges 262 Drillship 263 Jack-Up Platforms 263 Submersible Platforms 263 Semi-Submersible Platforms 265 Fixed Type Oil Platform 265 Jacket Offshore Platforms 266 Tension Leg Platforms 266 Gravity Platforms 267 Spar Platform 268 Compliant Towers 269 Summaries 271 Incidents of Offshore Structures 274 Heavy Wave-Induced Incidents 274 Ocean Ranger Platform Collapse, Canada 274 Sleipner A—North Sea Oil Platform Collapse 274 Explosion-Induced Incidents 275 The Piper Alpha Disaster 275 Fatigue-Induced Incident 275 Offshore Wind Turbine Structures 275 Features of Offshore Wind Turbines 276 Design Guidelines 276 Different Support Structures 277 Monopile Structures 277 Tripod and Lattice 277 Gravity Foundations 278 Floating Structures 280 Jacket Foundations for Offshore Wind Structure 280 Major Design Consideration and Design Guidelines for Offshore Structures 282 Design Guidance for Offshore Structures 283 Summary of Design Loadings 284 Dead Load 284 Live Load 284 Wave Load 284 Wave Theory 285 Regular Linear Waves 285 Airy Wave Theory 285 Morison's Equation 286 Wind Load 287 Ice Load 288 Earthquake Loads 288 Wind Turbine Structures 288 Oil Platform 289 Accidental Loads 289 Accidental Loads From Ship Collision 291 Ship Collision Assessment 291 Nonlinear Dynamic Finite Element Analysis 291 Accidental Load From Fire 292 Acceptance Criteria 292 Fire Assessment Inputs 292 Structural Fire Analysis Methods 293 Mitigation Methods 293 Explosion or Blast Loading 293 Acceptance Criteria 293 Blast Assessment Methods 294 Mitigation Methods 294 Dropped Objects 295 Fatigue and Material Degradation 295 Fatigue 295 Material Degradation 296 Stability and Buckling Analysis of Offshore Structures 296 Structural Analysis of Offshore Structures (Modeling Example of an Oil Platform Using SAP2000) 297 Analysis Software 297 Modeling Example of Jacket Platform 297 Setting Up Section Properties and Support Conditions 298 Setting Up Wave Loading 298 Setting Up Other Loads 299 Running Analysis and Getting Result 299 References 302 Index.pdf 1 Index 304 A 304 B 304 C 305 D 306 E 306 F 307 G 307 H 308 I 308 J 308 K 308 L 308 M 308 N 309 O 309 P 310 R 310 S 310 T 311 U 313 V 313 W 313 CONTENTS The Author ix Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Aims and Scope 1 1.2 The Main Design Issues of Tall and Complex Structures 2 1.3 Structure of the Book 2 References 4 2. Fundamentals of Tall Building Design 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 History of Tall Buildings 6 2.3 The Lateral Stability System for Tall Buildings 7 2.4 Loads on Tall Buildings 18 2.5 Floor System 22 2.6 Vertical Support Systems 27 2.7 Earthquake Design 29 2.8 Wind Load Design 43 2.9 Design to Prevent Progressive Collapse 58 2.10 Fire Safety Design 60 2.11 Design of Tall Building Under Blast Loading 66 2.12 Foundation Design for Tall Buildings 69 2.13 Construction Methods and Technologies 72 2.14 Creep, Shrinkage, and Column Shortening Effect 74 2.15 Cladding 76 References 78 3. Shear Wall, Core, Outrigger, Belt Truss, and Buttress Core System for Tall Buildings 8 1 3.1 Introduction 81 3.2 Shear Wall and Core System 82 3.3 Introduction of Outrigger, Belt Truss, and Buttress Core System 84 3.4 Outrigger Structures 85 3.5 Belt Truss and Ring Truss System 96 vi 3.6 Buttressed Core System 3.7 Summary References 4. Tube System in Tall Building 4.1 Introduction of T ube Structures 4.2 Tube-in-Tube System 4.3 Framed Tubes 4.4 Braced Tubes Structure (Trussed Tube Structure) 4.5 Bundled Tube 4.6 Hybrids Tube System 4.7 Superslender Tall Building Design 4.8 Conclusion References 5. Bracing, Diagrid, 30 Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 137 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Bracing Systems 5.3 3D Space Truss System 5.4 Diagrid Structures 5.5 Moment Resisting Frames 5.6 Mega Frame Structures (Superframe Structures) 5.7 Conclusion References 6. Design and Analysis of Complex Structures 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Examples of Complex Structures 6.3 Design Considerations in Complex Structures 6.4 Complex Structural Analysis Methods 6.5 Building Information Modeling 6.6 Parametric Design Process 6.7 API and GUI Development for Analysis Program 6.8 Example of Set up a 3D Model for Long-Span Structures-Roof of Wembley Stadium 6.9 Case study of Long-Span Roof in King's Cross St Pancras Station Using Ansys 6.10 Case Study of Multiphysics Fire Analysis of Building in Cardington Fire Test Using ANSYS 207 6.11 Conclusion 210 References 210 Design and Analysis of Tensile Structures and Tensegrity Structures 213 7.1 Introduction to Tensile Structures 213 7.2 General Considerations in Structural Design ofTensile Membrane Structure 223 7.3 Structural Analysis of Tensile Membrane Structure 227 7.4 Modeling Examples of Tensile Membrane Structure 235 7.5 Introduction to Tensegrity Structures 237 7.6 Structural Analysis of Tensegrity Structures 239 References 248 Design of Offshore Structures 251 8.1 Introduction 251 8.2 Oil Platform 251 8.3 Incidents of Offshore Structures 264 8.4 Offshore Wind Turbine Structures 265 8.5 Major Design Consideration and Design Guidelines for Offshore Structures 272 8.6 Structural Analysis of Offshore Structures (Modeling Example of an Oil Platform Using SAP2000) 287 References 292

The design of tall buildings and complex structures involves challenging activities, including: scheme design, modelling, structural analysis and detailed design. This book provides structural designers with a systematic approach to anticipate and solve issues for tall buildings and complex structures.

This book begins with a clear and rigorous exposition of theories behind designing tall buildings. After this is an explanation of basic issues encountered in the design process. This is followed by chapters concerning the design and analysis of tall building with different lateral stability systems, such as MRF, shear wall, core, outrigger, bracing, tube system, diagrid system and mega frame. The final three chapters explain the design principles and analysis methods for complex and special structures. With this book, researchers and designers will find a valuable reference on topics such as tall building systems, structure with complex geometry, Tensegrity structures, membrane structures and offshore structures.

• Numerous worked-through examples of existing prestigious projects around the world (such as Jeddah Tower, Shanghai Tower, and Petronas Tower etc.) are provided to assist the reader’s understanding of the topic
• Provides the latest modelling methods in design such as BIM and Parametric Modelling technique
• Detailed explanations of widely used programs in current design practice, such as SAP2000, ETABS, ANSYS, and Rhino
• Modelling case studies for all types of tall buildings and complex structures, such as: Buttressed Core system, diagrid system, Tube system, Tensile structures and offshore structures etc.