Digital Signal Processing Handbook

Contents......Page 1 Preface......Page 5 VijayK.Madisetti......Page 7 DouglasB.Williams......Page 8 I. Signals and Systems......Page 9 Introduction......Page 12 Fourier Series Representation of Continuous Timechaptocbreak Periodic Signals......Page 13 Exponential Fourier Series......Page 14 The Trigonometric Fourier Series......Page 15 Convergence of the Fourier Series......Page 17 The Classical Fourier Transform for Continuous Time Signals......Page 18 Fourier Spectrum of the Continuous Time Sampling Model......Page 19 Fourier Transform of Periodic Continuous Time Signals......Page 21 The Discrete Time Fourier Transform......Page 22 Properties of the Discrete Time Fourier Transform......Page 24 Relationship between the Continuous and Discrete Time Spectra......Page 25 The Discrete Fourier Transform......Page 26 Properties of the Discrete Fourier Series......Page 27 Fourier Block Processing in Real-Time Filtering Applications......Page 28 Fast Fourier Transform Algorithms......Page 29 Fast Fourier Transform in Spectral Analysis......Page 32 Finite Impulse Response Digital Filter Design......Page 35 Fourier Analysis of Ideal and Practical Digital-to-Analog Conversion......Page 36 Summary......Page 38 Differential Equations......Page 42 Classical Solution......Page 44 Method of Convolution......Page 52 Difference Equations......Page 54 Initial Conditions and Iterative Solution......Page 55 Classical Solution......Page 57 Method of Convolution......Page 62 Introduction......Page 66 Fixed-Point Quantization Errors......Page 67 Floating-Point Quantization Errors......Page 69 Roundoff Noise in FIR Filters......Page 70 Roundoff Noise in Fixed-Point IIR Filters......Page 71 Roundoff Noise in Floating-Point IIR Filters......Page 74 Limit Cycles......Page 76 Overflow Oscillations......Page 78 Coefficient Quantization Error......Page 79 Realization Considerations......Page 82 II. Signal Representation and Quantization......Page 84 Introduction......Page 87 Definition......Page 88 Fundamental Domains and Cosets......Page 90 The Continuous Space-Time Fourier Transform......Page 91 Sampling and Periodizing......Page 93 The Discrete Fourier Transform......Page 95 Combined Spatial and Frequency Sampling......Page 97 Lattice Chains......Page 98 Change of Variables......Page 99 An Extended Example: HDTV-to-SDTV Conversion......Page 102 Conclusions......Page 104 Introduction......Page 110 Fundamentals of A/D and D/A Conversion......Page 111 Nonideal A/D and D/A Converters......Page 112 Digital-to-Analog Converter Architecture......Page 114 Pipelined A/D Converter......Page 115 Cyclic A/D Converter......Page 117 Delta-Sigma Oversampling Converter......Page 118 Delta-Sigma A/D Converter Architecture......Page 119 Introduction......Page 126 Quantizer and Encoder Definitions......Page 127 Distortion Measure......Page 128 Lloyd-Max Quantizers......Page 129 Linde-Buzo-Gray Algorithm......Page 130 Practical Issues......Page 132 Multistage VQ......Page 134 Split VQ......Page 135 Predictive Speech Coding......Page 136 Speaker Identification......Page 137 Summary......Page 139 III. Fast Algorithms and Structures......Page 141 7. Fast Fourier Transforms: A Tutorial Review and a State of the Art......Page 144 Introduction......Page 145 From Gauss to the Cooley-Tukey FFT......Page 146 Development of the Twiddle Factor FFT......Page 147 FFTs Without Twiddle Factors......Page 148 State of the Art......Page 149 Motivation (or: why dividing is also conquering)......Page 150 The Cooley-Tukey Mapping......Page 152 Radix-2 and Radix-4 Algorithms......Page 154 Split-Radix Algorithm......Page 159 Remarks on FFTs with Twiddle Factors......Page 161 Basic Tools......Page 162 Winograd's Fourier Transform Algorithm (WFTA)nobreakspace {}cite {03x01.cit56}......Page 169 Remarks on FFTs Without Twiddle Factors......Page 171 Multiplicative Complexity......Page 172 Additive Complexity......Page 174 In-Place Computation......Page 175 Particular Cases and Related Transforms......Page 176 DFT Algorithms for Real Data......Page 177 Related Transforms......Page 178 Multidimensional Transforms......Page 179 Row-Column Algorithms......Page 180 Vector-Radix Algorithms......Page 181 Polynomial Transform......Page 182 General Purpose Computers......Page 185 VLSI......Page 186 Conclusion......Page 187 Introduction......Page 195 Overlap-Add......Page 196 Use of the Overlap Methods......Page 197 Block Convolution......Page 198 Block Recursion......Page 200 Short and Medium Length Convolution......Page 201 The Toom-Cook Method......Page 202 Winograd Short Convolution Algorithm......Page 203 The Split-Nesting Algorithm......Page 205 Multirate Methods for Running Convolution......Page 206 Convolution in Subbands......Page 208 Convolution is Two Dimensional......Page 209 Distributed Arithmetic by Table Lookup......Page 210 Number Theoretic Transforms......Page 211 Special Low-Multiply Filter Structures......Page 213 Introduction......Page 217 One-Dimensional DFTs......Page 222 Multidimensional DFTs......Page 223 Nonstandard Models and Problems......Page 224 Strassen Algorithm......Page 228 Divide-and-Conquer......Page 229 Arbitrary Precision Approximation (APA) Algorithms......Page 230 Number Theoretic Transform (NTT) Based Algorithms......Page 231 Overview......Page 232 The Wavelet Transform......Page 233 Wavelet Representations of Integral Operators......Page 234 Heuristic Interpretation of Wavelet Sparsification......Page 235 IV. Digital Filtering......Page 237 Introduction......Page 239 Creating the Design Specifications......Page 240 Specs Derived from Analog Filtering......Page 242 Specifying an Error Measure......Page 243 FIR Characteristics......Page 244 IIR Characteristics......Page 246 Realizing the Designed Filter......Page 247 Realizing IIR Filters......Page 248 Quantization: Finite Wordlength Effect......Page 249 Design by Windowing......Page 250 Optimal Square Error Design......Page 257 Equiripple Optimal Chebyshev Filter Design......Page 260 IIR Design Methods......Page 269 Bilinear Transformation Method......Page 270 Classical IIR Filter Types......Page 271 Maximally Flat Real Symmetric FIR Filters......Page 275 The Affine Filter Structure......Page 280 Optimal Design of FIR Filters with Arbitrary Magnitude and Phase......Page 282 Design of Minimum-Phase FIR Filters......Page 294 Delay Variation of Maximally Flat FIR Filters......Page 297 Combining Criteria in FIR Filter Design......Page 301 Allpass (Phase-Only) IIR Filter Design......Page 309 Magnitude and Phase Approximation......Page 310 Model Order Reduction......Page 311 Filter Design: Graphical User Interface (GUI)......Page 312 Band Edges and Ripples......Page 313 Frequency Scaling......Page 314 Filter Implementation......Page 315 Cascade of Second-Order Sections......Page 317 Scaling for Fixed-Point......Page 318 Comments and Summary......Page 322 V. Statistical Signal Processing......Page 329 Introduction......Page 336 Detector Design Strategies......Page 337 Likelihood Ratio Test......Page 338 Signal Classification......Page 340 The Linear Multivariate Gaussian Model......Page 341 Signal Detection: Known Gains......Page 342 Signal Detection: Unknown Gains......Page 343 Spatio-Temporal Signals......Page 344 Detection: Unknown Gains and Unknown Spatial Covariance......Page 345 Classifying Individual Signals......Page 346 Classifying Presence of Multiple Signals......Page 348 Introduction......Page 351 Random Processes......Page 352 Spectra of Deterministic Signals......Page 353 Spectra of Random Processes......Page 355 The Problem of Power Spectrum Estimation......Page 356 Periodogram......Page 357 The Welch Method......Page 359 Blackman-Tukey Method......Page 360 Minimum Variance Spectrum Estimator......Page 361 Multiwindow Spectrum Estimator......Page 362 Parametric Spectrum Estimation......Page 363 Spectrum Estimation Based on Autoregressive Models......Page 364 Spectrum Estimation Based on Moving Average Models......Page 365 Spectrum Estimation Based on Autoregressive Moving Average Models......Page 366 Pisarenko Harmonic Decomposition Method......Page 367 Multiple Signal Classification (MUSIC)......Page 369 Recent Developments......Page 370 Introduction......Page 373 Least-Squares Estimation......Page 374 Properties of Estimators......Page 376 Best Linear Unbiased Estimation......Page 377 Mean-Squared Estimation of Random Parameters......Page 378 The Basic State-Variable Model......Page 380 Prediction......Page 382 Filtering (the Kalman Filter)......Page 383 Smoothing......Page 385 Digital Wiener Filtering......Page 386 Linear Prediction in DSP, and Kalman Filtering......Page 387 Extended Kalman Filter......Page 388 Introduction......Page 394 Gaussianity, Linearity, and Stationarity Tests......Page 396 Gaussianity Tests......Page 397 Linearity Tests......Page 399 Order Selection......Page 400 Model Validation......Page 401 Confidence Intervals......Page 402 Middleton Class A Noise......Page 403 Stable Noise Distribution......Page 404 Concluding Remarks......Page 405 Introduction......Page 408 Definitions, Properties, Representations......Page 409 Estimation, Time-Frequency Links, Testing......Page 416 Estimating Cyclic Statistics......Page 417 Links with Time-Frequency Representations......Page 418 Testing for Cyclostationarity......Page 419 CS Signals and CS-Inducing Operations......Page 420 Amplitude Modulation......Page 421 Time Index Modulation......Page 422 Fractional Sampling and Multivariate/Multirate Processing......Page 423 Periodically Varying Systems......Page 424 Application Areas......Page 426 CS Signal Extraction......Page 429 Identification and Modeling......Page 431 Concluding Remarks......Page 436 VI. Adaptive Filtering......Page 440 What is an Adaptive Filter?......Page 443 Filter Structures......Page 444 The Task of an Adaptive Filter......Page 447 System Identification......Page 448 Inverse Modeling......Page 450 Linear Prediction......Page 452 Feedforward Control......Page 453 The Mean-Squared Error Cost Function......Page 454 The Wiener Solution......Page 455 The LMS Algorithm......Page 456 Other Stochastic Gradient Algorithms......Page 457 System Identification Example......Page 458 Conclusions......Page 460 Introduction......Page 463 Characterizing the Performance of Adaptive Filters......Page 464 Statistical Models for the Input Signal......Page 465 The Independence Assumptions......Page 467 Useful Definitions......Page 468 Mean Analysis......Page 469 Mean-Square Analysis......Page 473 Basic Criteria for Performance......Page 475 Identifying Stationary Systems......Page 477 Tracking Time-Varying Systems......Page 478 Normalized Step Sizes......Page 479 Other Time-Varying Step Size Methods......Page 480 Analysis of Other Adaptive Filters......Page 481 Conclusions......Page 482 Motivation and Example......Page 485 Adaptive Filter Structure......Page 486 Performance and Robustness Issues......Page 487 Robust Adaptive Filtering......Page 488 Energy Bounds and Passivity Relations......Page 491 Min-Max Optimality of Adaptive Gradient Algorithms......Page 492 Comparison of LMS and RLS Algorithms......Page 493 Time-Domain Analysis......Page 494 l2-Stability and the Small Gain Condition......Page 495 Energy Propagation in the Feedback Cascade......Page 497 A Deterministic Convergence Analysis......Page 498 Filtered-Error Gradient Algorithms......Page 499 References and Concluding Remarks......Page 502 21. Recursive Least-Squares Adaptive Filters......Page 506 Array Algorithms......Page 508 Elementary Hyperbolic Rotations......Page 509 Square-Root-Free and Householder Transformations......Page 510 A Numerical Example......Page 511 The Least-Squares Problem......Page 512 Statistical Interpretation......Page 513 The Regularized Least-Squares Problem......Page 514 Statistical Interpretation......Page 515 The Recursive Least-Squares Problem......Page 516 Reducing to the Regularized Form......Page 517 Time Updates......Page 518 Estimation Errors and the Conversion Factor......Page 519 RLS Algorithms in Array Forms......Page 520 The Inverse QR Algorithm......Page 521 The QR Algorithm......Page 524 The Prewindowed Case......Page 526 A Fast Array Algorithm......Page 527 The Fast Transversal Filter......Page 529 Order-Recursive Filters......Page 530 Joint Process Estimation......Page 531 The Backward Prediction Error Vectors......Page 533 The Forward Prediction Error Vectors......Page 535 A Nonunity Forgetting Factor......Page 537 The QRD Least-Squares Lattice Filter......Page 539 The Filtering or Joint Process Array......Page 541 Concluding Remarks......Page 542 22. Transform Domain Adaptive Filtering......Page 546 LMS Adaptive Filter Theory......Page 547 Orthogonalization and Power Normalization......Page 550 Convergence of the Transform Domain Adaptive Filter......Page 552 Discussion and Examples......Page 554 Quasi-Newton Adaptive Algorithms......Page 555 A Fast Quasi-Newton Algorithm......Page 557 The 2-D Transform Domain Adaptive Filter......Page 558 Block-Based Adaptive Filters......Page 560 Comparison of the Constrained and Unconstrained Frequency Domain Block-LMS Adaptive Algorithms......Page 562 Examples and Discussion......Page 565 Introduction......Page 568 The System Identification Framework for Adaptive IIR Filtering......Page 569 Some Preliminaries......Page 571 The LMS and LS Equation Error Algorithms......Page 572 Instrumental Variable Algorithms......Page 574 Equation Error Algorithms with Unit Norm Constraints......Page 575 Gradient-Descent Algorithms......Page 577 Output Error Algorithms Based on Stability Theory......Page 580 The Steiglitz-McBride Family of Algorithms......Page 582 Alternate Parametrizations......Page 585 Conclusions......Page 586 Introduction......Page 589 Channel Equalization in QAM Data Communication Systems......Page 590 Decision-Directed Adaptive Channel Equalizer......Page 592 Basic Facts on Blind Adaptive Equalization......Page 593 Adaptive Algorithms and Notations......Page 594 Mean Cost Functions and Associated Algorithms......Page 595 BGR Extensions of Sato Algorithm......Page 596 Stop-and-Go Algorithms......Page 597 Shalvi and Weinstein Algorithms......Page 598 Summary......Page 599 A Common Analysis Approach......Page 600 Initialization Issues......Page 601 Linearly Constrained Equalizer With Convex Cost......Page 602 Fractionally Spaced Blind Equalizers......Page 603 Concluding Remarks......Page 605 Contents......Page 0 VII. Inverse Problems and Signal Reconstruction......Page 608 Introduction......Page 613 Formulation of the Signal Recovery Problem......Page 614 Prolate Spheroidal Wavefunctions......Page 616 Wiener Filtering......Page 618 The Pseudoinverse Solution......Page 619 Regularization Techniques......Page 621 The POCS Framework......Page 622 Row-Based Methods......Page 624 Block-Based Methods......Page 626 Image Restoration Using POCS......Page 627 The Reconstruction Problem......Page 635 Filtered Backprojection (FBP)......Page 636 The Linogram Method......Page 637 Series Expansion Methods......Page 639 Algebraic Reconstruction Techniques (ART)......Page 640 Expectation Maximization (EM)......Page 641 Comparison of the Performance of Algorithms......Page 642 Introduction......Page 646 Speech Production and Spectrum-Related Parameterization......Page 647 Template-Based Speech Processing......Page 648 Robust Speech Processing......Page 649 Affine Transform......Page 652 Deterministic Convolutional Channel as a Linear Transform......Page 653 Additive Noise as a Linear Transform......Page 655 Affine Transform of Cepstral Coefficients......Page 657 Parameters of Affine Transform......Page 659 Correspondence of Cepstral Vectors......Page 661 Background......Page 665 Inverse Problems in DSP......Page 666 Analogies with Statistical Mechanics......Page 667 Combinatorial Optimization......Page 668 Gibbs' Distribution......Page 669 The Simulated Annealing Procedure......Page 670 Introduction......Page 676 The EM Algorithm......Page 677 Example: A Simple MRF......Page 678 Conditional Expectation Calculations......Page 681 Convergence Problem......Page 683 Single Channel Blur Identification and Image Restoration......Page 685 Problem Formulation......Page 691 The E-Step......Page 692 The M-Step......Page 693 Comments on the Choice of Initial Conditions......Page 694 Summary and Conclusion......Page 695 Introduction......Page 702 Wave Propagation......Page 703 Spatial Sampling......Page 704 Narrowband Arrays......Page 705 Look-Direction Constraint......Page 706 Broadband Arrays......Page 707 Narrowband Arrays......Page 710 Row-Action Projection Method......Page 711 Simulation Results......Page 712 Broadband Results......Page 713 Summary......Page 717 Discrete-Time Intersymbol Interference Channel Model......Page 721 Regularization......Page 723 Discrete-Time Adaptive Filtering......Page 725 Adaptive Algorithm Recapitulation......Page 726 Numerical Results......Page 727 Conclusion......Page 729 Introduction: Dereverberation Using Microphone Arrays......Page 731 Simple Delay-and-Sum Beamformers......Page 733 A Brief Look at Adaptive Arrays......Page 735 Constrained Adaptive Beamforming Formulated as an Inverse Problem......Page 738 Matched Filtering......Page 741 Diophantine Inverse Filtering Using the Multiple Input-Output (MINT) Model......Page 744 Results......Page 745 Speaker Identification......Page 747 Summary......Page 751 Introduction......Page 754 Image Formation......Page 758 Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR)......Page 759 Unfocused Synthetic Aperture Radar......Page 760 Focused Synthetic Aperture Radar......Page 761 SAR Image Enhancement......Page 762 Automatic Object Detection and Classification in SAR Imagery......Page 764 Introduction......Page 769 Iterative Recovery Algorithms......Page 770 Basic Iterative Restoration Algorithm......Page 771 Convergence......Page 772 Matrix-Vector Formulation......Page 774 Least-Squares Iteration......Page 775 Basic Iteration......Page 776 Use of Constraints......Page 777 Class of Higher Order Iterative Algorithms......Page 778 Ill-Posed Problems and Regularization Theory......Page 779 Constrained Minimization Regularization Approaches......Page 780 Iteration Adaptive Image Restoration Algorithms......Page 782 Discussion......Page 784 VIII. Time Frequency and Multirate Signal Processing......Page 788 Filter Banks and Wavelets......Page 793 Deriving Continuous-Time Bases From Discrete-Time Ones......Page 796 Two-Channel Filter Banks and Wavelets......Page 799 Structure of Two-Channel Filter Banks......Page 801 Putting the Pieces Together......Page 804 36. Filter Bank Design......Page 809 Filter Bank Equations......Page 810 The AC Matrix......Page 812 Spectral Factorization......Page 813 Lattice Implementations......Page 814 Time-Domain Design......Page 815 Finite Field Filter Banks......Page 818 Nonlinear Filter Banks......Page 821 Introduction......Page 828 Analysis of Time-Varying Filter Banks......Page 829 Time-Varying Filter Bank Design Techniques......Page 832 Approach I: Intermediate Analysis-Synthesis (IAS)......Page 833 Approach II: Instantaneous Transform Switching (ITS)......Page 836 Conclusion......Page 838 Orthogonal Block Transforms......Page 842 Orthogonal Lapped Transforms......Page 843 Generalized Linear-Phase Lapped Orthogonal Transform (GenLOT)......Page 846 Remarks......Page 847 IX. Digital Audio Communications......Page 850 Introduction......Page 855 Pitch......Page 857 Threshold of Hearing......Page 858 Differential Threshold......Page 859 Masked Threshold......Page 860 Summary of Relevant Psychophysical Data......Page 861 Loudness......Page 862 Differential Thresholds......Page 866 Masking......Page 867 Conclusions......Page 877 Introduction......Page 882 Key Technologies in Audio Coding......Page 884 Auditory Masking and Perceptual Coding......Page 885 Frequency Domain Coding......Page 888 Window Switching......Page 889 MPEG-1/Audio Coding......Page 891 The Basics......Page 892 Layers I and II......Page 894 Layer III......Page 896 Frame and Multiplex Structure......Page 898 Subjective Quality......Page 899 MPEG-2/Audio Multichannel Coding......Page 900 Backward-Compatible (BC) MPEG-2/Audio Coding......Page 901 Advanced/MPEG-2/Audio Coding (AAC)......Page 903 Simulcast Transmission......Page 904 MPEG-4/Audio Coding......Page 905 Applications......Page 906 Conclusions......Page 907 Overview......Page 912 Bit Stream Syntax......Page 916 Analysis/Synthesis Filterbank......Page 917 Window Design......Page 918 Transform Equations......Page 919 Spectral Envelope......Page 920 Channel Coupling......Page 923 Rematrixing......Page 925 Parametric Bit Allocation......Page 926 Spreading Function Shape......Page 927 Algorithm Description......Page 928 Quantization and Coding......Page 931 Error Detection......Page 932 Introduction......Page 935 Applications and Test Results......Page 937 Perceptual Coding......Page 938 PAC Structure......Page 940 The EPAC Filterbank and Structure......Page 942 Perceptual Modeling......Page 945 MS vs. LR Switching......Page 947 Noiseless Compression......Page 948 Filterbank and Psychoacoustic Model......Page 949 The Composite Coding Methods......Page 950 Decoder Complexity......Page 951 Conclusions......Page 952 Introduction......Page 955 Concept......Page 956 Actual Converters......Page 958 Film Format......Page 961 Playback System for Digital Sound......Page 962 The SDDS Error Correction Technique......Page 963 Features of the SDDS System......Page 964 Abstract......Page 965 Coder Scheme......Page 967 ATRAC......Page 970 ATRAC2......Page 972 X. Speech Processing......Page 976 Speech Sounds......Page 980 Speech Displays......Page 981 Geometry of the Vocal and Nasal Tracts......Page 982 Acoustical Properties of the Vocal and Nasal Tracts......Page 983 Simplifying Assumptions......Page 984 Wave Propagation in the Vocal Tract......Page 985 The Lossless Case......Page 986 Inclusion of Losses......Page 987 Chain Matrices......Page 988 Nasal Coupling......Page 990 Periodic Excitation......Page 991 Turbulent Excitation......Page 996 Specification of Parameters......Page 998 Synthesis......Page 999 Examples of Applications......Page 1002 Speech Coder Attributes......Page 1003 The LPC Speech Production Model......Page 1005 Model-Based Speech Coders......Page 1007 Time Domain Waveform-Following Speech Coders......Page 1009 Frequency Domain Waveform-Following Speech Coders......Page 1011 Current Standards......Page 1012 Current ITU Waveform Signal Coders......Page 1013 ITU Linear Prediction Analysis-by-Synthesis Speech Coders......Page 1014 Digital Cellular Speech Coding Standards......Page 1015 Secure Voice Standards......Page 1016 Performance......Page 1017 Introduction......Page 1022 Text Preprocessing......Page 1024 Word Pronunciation......Page 1025 Segmental Durations......Page 1027 Intonation......Page 1028 Speech Synthesis......Page 1029 The Future of TTS......Page 1031 Introduction......Page 1034 Characterization of Speech Recognition Systems......Page 1035 ``Pattern-Matching'' Approach cite {10x05.Ita75}......Page 1036 Speech Recognition by Pattern Matching......Page 1037 Pattern Training......Page 1038 Pattern Matching......Page 1040 Connected Word Recognition......Page 1041 Performance of Connected Word Recognizers......Page 1042 Sub-Word Speech Units and Acoustic Modeling......Page 1043 Speech Recognition System Issues......Page 1044 Keyword Spottingnobreakspace {}cite {10x05.WRL90} and Utterance Verificationnobreakspace {}cite {10x05.RLJ95}......Page 1045 ASR Applications......Page 1046 Introduction......Page 1051 Vocal Personal Identity Characteristics......Page 1052 Basic Elements of a Speaker Recognition System......Page 1053 Extracting Speaker Information from the Speech Signal......Page 1055 Feature Similarity Measurements......Page 1057 Units of Speech for Representing Speakers......Page 1058 Text Dependent (Randomly Prompted Passwords)......Page 1059 Representations That do not Preserve Temporal Characteristics......Page 1060 Optimizing Criteria for Model Construction......Page 1062 Model Training and Updating......Page 1063 Likelihood and Normalized Scores......Page 1064 Cohort or Speaker Background Models......Page 1065 ROC Curves......Page 1066 Outstanding Issues......Page 1067 Software Development Targets......Page 1073 Software Development Paradigms......Page 1074 Assembly Language Basics......Page 1077 Arithmetic......Page 1078 Algorithmic Constructs......Page 1085 Introduction......Page 1089 The User's Environment (OS-Based vs. Workspace-Based)......Page 1090 Display-Oriented Software......Page 1091 Computation vs. Display......Page 1092 Visual (``Point-and-Click'') Interfaces......Page 1093 Parametric Control of Operations......Page 1094 Consistency Maintenance......Page 1095 Real-Time Performance......Page 1096 Support for Speech Input and Output......Page 1097 Summary of Characteristics and Uses......Page 1098 Sources for Finding Out What is Currently Available......Page 1099 Future Trends......Page 1100 XI. Image and Video Processing......Page 1101 Introduction......Page 1105 Digital Image Definitions......Page 1106 Characteristics of Image Operations......Page 1107 Convolution......Page 1109 Fourier Transforms......Page 1110 Properties of Fourier Transforms......Page 1111 Statistics......Page 1114 Contour Representations......Page 1119 Brightness Sensitivity......Page 1121 Spatial Frequency Sensitivity......Page 1122 Color Sensitivity......Page 1123 Image Sampling......Page 1125 Sampling Density for Image Processing......Page 1126 Sampling Density for Image Analysis......Page 1128 Photon Noise......Page 1129 On-Chip Electronic Noise......Page 1130 Cameras......Page 1131 Sensitivity......Page 1132 SNR......Page 1133 Shading......Page 1134 Pixel Form......Page 1135 Shutter Speeds (Integration Time)......Page 1136 Displays......Page 1137 Histogram-Based Operations......Page 1138 Mathematics-Based Operations......Page 1140 Convolution-Based Operations......Page 1142 Smoothing Operations......Page 1146 Derivative-Based Operations......Page 1151 Morphology-Based Operations......Page 1156 Shading Correction......Page 1169 Basic Enhancement and Restoration Techniques......Page 1171 Segmentation......Page 1176 Acknowledgments......Page 1188 Introduction......Page 1190 Compressibility of Images......Page 1191 The Ideal Coding System......Page 1192 Coding with Reduced Complexity......Page 1193 Signal Decomposition......Page 1194 Decomposition by Filter Banks......Page 1195 Optimal Transforms/Filter Banks......Page 1198 Decomposition by Differential Coding......Page 1200 Scalar Quantization......Page 1201 Vector Quantization......Page 1203 Efficient Use of Bit-Resources......Page 1204 The JPEG Standard......Page 1206 Improved Coders: State-of-the-Art......Page 1208 Fractal Coding......Page 1210 Mathematical Background......Page 1212 Mean-Gain-Shape Attractor Coding......Page 1213 Color Coding......Page 1215 Introduction......Page 1219 Intra-Frame Observation Model......Page 1220 Multiframe Observation Model......Page 1221 Model Parameter Estimation......Page 1222 Estimation of the Noise Variance......Page 1223 Basic Regularized Restoration Methods......Page 1224 Restoration of Images Recorded by Nonlinear Sensors......Page 1228 Adaptive Restoration for Ringing Reduction......Page 1229 Restoration of Multispectral Images......Page 1230 Restoration of Space-Varying Blurred Images......Page 1231 Multiframe Restoration......Page 1232 Superresolution......Page 1233 Superresolution with Space-Varying Restoration......Page 1234 Conclusion......Page 1235 Introduction......Page 1240 Temporal Interpolation......Page 1241 Vertical Interpolation and Interlaced Scanning......Page 1243 Advanced Algorithms......Page 1244 Pel-Recursive Estimators......Page 1250 Block-Matching Algorithm......Page 1251 Search Strategies......Page 1253 Motion Estimation and Scanning Format Conversion......Page 1255 Hierarchical Motion Estimation......Page 1256 Recursive Search Block-Matching......Page 1257 Introduction......Page 1260 Motion Estimation and Compensation......Page 1261 Transformations......Page 1262 Quantization......Page 1268 Desirable Features......Page 1271 Scalability......Page 1272 Error Resilience......Page 1273 H.261......Page 1274 MPEG-1......Page 1276 MPEG-4......Page 1277 Introduction......Page 1281 MUSE System......Page 1282 HDTV in North America......Page 1283 Hybrid Analog/Digital Systems......Page 1284 FEC......Page 1286 Error Detection and Confinement......Page 1287 Scalable Coding for Error Concealment......Page 1288 Multi-Resolution Transmission......Page 1289 Satellite Transmission......Page 1290 ATM Transmission of Video......Page 1291 ATM Adaptation Layer for Digital Video......Page 1292 Cell Loss Protection......Page 1293 Introduction......Page 1297 Acquisition and Display of Stereoscopic Images......Page 1298 Disparity Estimation......Page 1300 Compression of Stereoscopic Images......Page 1303 Intermediate Viewpoint Interpolation......Page 1304 Image Processing Software......Page 1309 General Image Utilities......Page 1310 Specialized Image Utilities......Page 1312 Programming/Analysis Environments......Page 1313 Images by Form......Page 1314 Introduction......Page 1317 Recent Coding Schemes......Page 1318 Architectural Alternatives......Page 1319 Efficiency Estimation of Alternative VLSI Implementations......Page 1320 Dedicated Architectures......Page 1321 Programmable Architectures......Page 1328 Parallel Data Paths......Page 1329 Coprocessor Concept......Page 1332 Conclusion......Page 1336 XII. Sensor Array Processing......Page 1339 Introduction......Page 1343 Representations of Deterministic Signals......Page 1345 Finite-Energy Second-Order Stochastic Processes......Page 1346 Second-Order Complex Stochastic Processes......Page 1348 Complex Representations of Finite-Energy Second-Order Stochastic Processes......Page 1349 Finite-Power Stochastic Processe