Essential Neuroscience (4th ed.)

Preface Acknowledgments Section i Gross Anatomy of the Brain 1 Overview of the Central Nervous System Gross Anatomy of the Brain Neuroanatomical Terms Components of the Central Nervous System Cerebral Topography Lateral Surface of the Brain Frontal Lobe Parietal Lobe Occipital Lobe Temporal Lobe Medial Surface of the Brain Inferior (Ventral) Surface of the Cerebral Cortex Posterior Aspect of the Cerebral Cortex: Temporal and Occipital Lobes Forebrain Structures Visible in Horizontal and Frontal Sections of the Brain Ventricles Basal Ganglia Diencephalon Limbic Structures Topography of the Cerebellum and Brainstem Cerebellum Brainstem Dorsal View of the Brainstem Ventral View of the Brainstem 2 Development of the Nervous System Early Aspects of Development Morphogenesis of the Central Nervous System The Spinal Cord The Brain Myelencephalon (Medulla) Metencephalon Mesencephalon (Midbrain) Prosencephalon (Forebrain) Myelination in the Central Nervous System Abnormalities in Development of the Nervous System Spina Bifida Syringo(hydro)myelia Tethered Cord Encephalocele Dandy-Walker Syndrome Anencephaly Folate Therapy for Prevention of Neural Tube Defects Mechanisms Underlying Neural Development Signal Induction and Neural Cell Differentiation Neuronal Generation and Cell Death Factors Affecting Formation and Survival of Neurons How Axons Are Directed to Their Targets and Synapses Are Formed: Neurochemical Specificity 3 Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid The Meninges Coverings of the Brain Dura Mater Arachnoid Mater Pia Mater Coverings of the Spinal Cord Spinal Dura Mater Spinal Arachnoid Mater Spinal Pia Mater Lumbar Cistern Brain Ventricular System The Choroid Plexus Cerebrospinal Fluid Formation Circulation Functions Composition Alteration of the Cerebrospinal Fluid in Pathologic Conditions The Blood-Brain Barrier and Blood–Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier Disorders Associated With Meninges Meningitis Meningiomas Disorders of the Cerebrospinal Fluid System Hydrocephalus Increase in Intracranial Pressure Section ii The Neuron 4 Histology of the Nervous System The Neuron The Cell Membrane The Nerve Cell Body The Nucleus The Cytoplasm Nissl Substance or Bodies Mitochondria Golgi Apparatus Lysosomes Cytoskeleton Dendrites Axon Axonal Transport Fast Anterograde Transport Slow Anterograde Transport Fast Retrograde Transport Types of Neurons Multipolar Neurons Bipolar Neurons Pseudo-Unipolar Neurons Unipolar Neurons Other Types of Neurons Neuroglia Astrocytes Protoplasmic Astrocytes Fibrous Astrocytes Radial Glia Functions of Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia Ependymal Cells Myelinated Axons Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System Differences in the Composition of Myelin in the Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System Composition of Peripheral Nerves Clinical Considerations Disorders Associated With Defective Myelination Multiple Sclerosis Guillain-Barré Syndrome Neuronal Injury Injury of the Neuronal Cell Body Axonal Damage 5 Electrophysiology of Neurons Introduction Structure and Permeability of the Neuronal Membrane Structure of Proteins Membrane Transport Proteins Carrier Proteins (Carriers or Transporters) Channel Proteins Transport of Solutes Across Cell Membranes Simple Diffusion Passive Transport (Facilitated Diffusion) Active Transport Sodium-Potassium Ion Pump Calcium Pump Intracellular and Extracellular Ionic Concentrations Electrophysiology of the Neuron Terminology Ion-Related Terms Electrical Charge–Related Terms Current Flow–Related Terms Membrane Potential–Related Terms Ion Channels Classification of Ion Channels Equilibrium Potentials Ionic Basis of the Resting Membrane Potential Ionic Basis of the Action Potential Propagation of Action Potentials Clinical Considerations Lambert-Eaton (Eaton-Lambert) Syndrome Guillain-Barré Syndrome Multiple Sclerosis Prion Diseases Cystic Fibrosis 6 Synaptic Transmission Introduction Types of Synaptic Transmission Electrical Transmission Chemical Transmission Cotransmission Types of Central Nervous System Synapses Receptors Directly Gated Synaptic Transmission at a Peripheral Synapse (Neuromuscular Junction) Directly Gated Transmission at a Central Synapse Clinical Considerations Diseases Affecting the Chemical Transmission at the Nerve–Muscle Synapse Myasthenia Gravis Lambert-Eaton (Eaton-Lambert) Syndrome Defects in Myelination Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease Disorders Associated With Toxins Botulism Tetanus 7 Neurotransmitters Introduction Definition Criteria Used for Identifying Neurotransmitters Major Classes of Neurotransmitters Mechanism of Transmitter Release Exocytosis Recycling of Synaptic Vesicle Membranes Steps Involved in Neurotransmitter Release Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters Neuropeptide Neurotransmitters Individual Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Synthesis Removal Distribution Physiological and Clinical Considerations Excitatory Amino Acids: Glutamate Synthesis Removal Physiological and Clinical Considerations Inhibitory Amino Acids γ-Aminobutyric Acid Glycine Catecholamines Dopamine Norepinephrine Epinephrine Indoleamines Serotonin Imidazole Amines Histamine Purines Neuroactive Peptides Opioid Peptides Nociceptin Physiological and Clinical Considerations Tachykinins: Substance P Gaseous Neurotransmitters Nitric Oxide Differences From Other Transmitters Synthesis and Removal Physiological and Clinical Considerations Cotransmission Receptors Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor N-Methyl-D-Aspartic Acid Receptor Kainate Receptor AMPA/Quisqualate Receptor GABAA Receptors Glycine Receptor 5-HT3 Receptor Metabotropic Receptors Cholinergic Muscarinic Receptors Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Dopamine Receptors Adrenergic Receptors GABAB Receptors Opioid Receptors Nociceptin Receptors Serotonin (5-HT) Receptors Histamine Receptors Adenosine Receptors Pattern Recognition Receptors Toll-Like Receptors Mechanisms of Regulation of Receptors Desensitization Down-Regulation Ionotropic Receptors Section iii Organization of the Central Nervous System 8 The Spinal Cord Introduction Gross Anatomy Internal Structure Cytoarchitectural Organization of the Spinal Gray Matter Spinal Segments Spinal Cord Tracts Long Ascending Tracts Fasciculus Gracilis Fasciculus Cuneatus Dorsal (Posterior) Spinocerebellar Tract Cuneocerebellar Tract Ventral (Anterior) Spinocerebellar Tract Rostral Spinocerebellar Tract Spinothalamic Tract Long Descending Tracts Corticospinal Tract Rubrospinal Tract Tectospinal Tract Lateral Vestibulospinal Tract Medial Vestibulospinal Tract Reticulospinal Tracts Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus Fasciculi Proprii Spinal Cord Lesions Spinal Cord Transection Brown-Séquard Syndrome Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s Disease) Syringomyelia Tabes Dorsalis Multiple Sclerosis Combined Systems Disease Lesions of the Dorsal Root Lesions of the Ventral Root Spinal Cord Injury Spinal Reflexes Myotatic Reflex Receptors Circuitry and Mechanisms Reciprocal Inhibition in the Myotatic Reflex Inverse Myotatic Reflex Resetting of the Muscle Spindle Through the Gamma Loop Modulation of Muscle Tone by Gamma Motor Neurons Flexion (Withdrawal) Reflex Receptors Circuitry and Mechanism Crossed Extension Reflex Receptors Circuitry and Mechanism Locomotion 9 Brainstem I: The Medulla Gross Anatomical View and Internal Organization Gross Anatomical View Internal Organization Major Fiber Tracts and Associated Nuclei Internal Nuclei of the Brainstem Levels of the Medulla Clinical Considerations Lateral Medullary Syndrome Medial Medullary Syndrome Dorsal Medullary Syndrome 10 Brainstem II: Pons and Cerebellum Introduction Gross Anatomical View of the Pons Internal Organization of the Pons Fiber Pathways Major Cell Groups Caudal Pons Rostral Pons Basilar Aspect of the Pons Pontine Tegmentum Lower (Caudal) Half of the Pons Upper (Rostral) Half of the Pons The Cerebellum Clinical Considerations Caudal Tegmental Pontine Syndrome Caudal Basal Pontine Syndrome Rostral Basal Pontine Syndrome Rostral Tegmental Pontine Syndrome Other Related Syndromes of the Pons The Locked-In Syndrome The Medial Tegmental Syndrome The One-and-a-Half Syndrome 11 Brainstem III: The Midbrain Introduction Internal Organization of the Midbrain Level of the Inferior Colliculus Tectum Tegmentum (Including the Periaqueductal Gray Matter) Crus Cerebri Level of the Superior Colliculus Tectum Tegmentum Crus Cerebri Clinical Considerations Weber’s Syndrome Benedikt’s Syndrome Gaze Palsy (Parinaud’s Syndrome) 12 The Forebrain Introduction Diencephalon Thalamus Epithalamus Habenular Complex and Stria Medullaris Pineal Gland Subthalamus Hypothalamus Lateral Hypothalamus Medial Hypothalamus Anterior–Posterior Levels of Hypothalamus Basal Ganglia Principal Component Structures Caudate Nucleus Putamen Globus Pallidus Fiber Pathways of the Basal Ganglia Limbic System and Associated Structures of the Basal Forebrain Hippocampal Formation Septal Area Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis Nucleus Accumbens Substantia Innominata Amygdala Other Major Pathways of the Forebrain Internal Capsule Anterior Commissure Clinical Considerations Thalamus Hypothalamus Basal Ganglia Limbic Structures Cerebral Cortex 13 The Cranial Nerves Introduction Classification of the Cranial Nerves Efferent Nerves (From the Central Nervous System) General Somatic Efferents Special Visceral Efferents General Visceral Efferents Afferent Fibers (to the Brain) General Somatic Afferents Special Sensory Afferents Special Visceral Afferents General Visceral Afferents Anatomical Organization of the Cranial Nerves Within the Brainstem Cranial Nerves Associated With the Lower Brainstem and Adjoining Regions of the Spinal Cord Hypoglossal Nerve (Cranial Nerve XII) Spinal Accessory Nerve (Cranial Nerve XI) Vagus Nerve (Cranial Nerve X) Glossopharyngeal Nerve (Cranial Nerve IX) Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve VIII) Cranial Nerves of the Pons and Midbrain Facial Nerve (Cranial Nerve VII) Trigeminal Nerve (Cranial Nerve V) Cranial Nerves of the Pons and Midbrain Associated With the Control of Eye Movements Abducens Nerve (Cranial Nerve VI) Trochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve IV) Oculomotor Nerve (Cranial Nerve III) Control of Eye Movements: Role of the Pontine Gaze Center Cortical and Vestibular Control of Extraocular Eye Muscles Vertical Gaze Center Cranial Nerves of the Forebrain Optic Nerve (Cranial Nerve II) Olfactory Nerve (Cranial Nerve I) Section iv Sensory Systems 14 Somatosensory System General Organization of Sensory Systems Sensory Receptors Modality Intensity Duration Location Stimulus Transduction Receptive Field Relay Nuclei Cortical Mechanisms Classification of Nerve Fibers Somatosensory System Sensory Modalities Tactile Sensations (Touch, Pressure, and Vibration) Proprioception Pain Temperature 15 Visual System Introduction Components of the Eye Different Layers of the Retina The Pigment Epithelium Layer The Layer of Rods and Cones The External Limiting Membrane The Outer Nuclear Layer The Outer Plexiform Layer The Inner Nuclear Layer The Inner Plexiform Layer The Layer of Ganglion Cells The Optic Nerve Layer Müller Cells The Photoreceptors Cones Rods Melanopsin-Containing Retinal Ganglion Cells Phototransduction Processing of Signals From the Photoreceptors by Different Retinal Cells Bipolar, Horizontal, and Ganglion Cells Significance of Changes in On-Center and Off-Center Bipolar and Ganglion Cell Activities Color Vision Blood Supply of the Retina Visual and Retinal Fields Visual Pathways The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of Thalamus The Geniculocalcarine Tract Visual Cortex The Superior Colliculus Binding Mechanism Visual Reflexes Pupillary Light Reflex Accommodation Reflex Prominent Defects in Vision Hypermetropia Myopia Astigmatism Strabismic Amblyopia Night Blindness Color Blindness Argyll Robertson Pupil Adie’s Pupil Marcus-Gunn Pupil Weber’s Syndrome Parinaud’s Syndrome Retinitis Pigmentosa Macular Degeneration Deficits After a Lesion at Different Sites in the Visual Pathway 16 Auditory and Vestibular Systems Introduction Auditory System Physics of Sound Components of the Ear External Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear Mechanism of Sound Conduction Central Auditory Pathways Cochlear Nuclei Superior Olivary Nuclei Lateral Lemniscus and Associated Nuclei Inferior Colliculus Medial Geniculate Nucleus Primary Auditory Cortex Descending Pathways Clinical Disorders Associated With the Auditory System Conduction Deafness Sensorineural Deafness Hearing Tests Tinnitus Vestibular System Anatomical Components Saccule Utricle Semicircular Canals Vestibular Sensory Receptors Central Pathways Ascending Vestibular Pathways Cerebellar Afferent and Efferent Projections Vestibulocortical Pathway Descending Vestibular Pathways Vestibular System and Control of Eye Movements Summary of the Functions of the Vestibular System Clinical Disorders Associated With the Vestibular System Nystagmus Vertigo Motion Sickness Inflammation of the Vestibular Labyrinth Ménière’s Disease 17 Olfaction and Taste Introduction Olfactory System Stimulus Receptors Sensory Transduction Central Pathways Spatial Organization Clinical Conditions in Which the Olfactory Sensation is Altered Taste Stimulus Receptors Transduction of the Taste Stimulus Central Pathways Taste Perception Clinical Conditions in Which the Taste Sensation is Altered Section v Motor Systems 18 The Upper Motor Neurons Introduction The Corticospinal Tract Origin of the Corticospinal Tract Histology of the Motor Cortex Course of the Corticospinal Tract Distribution of the Corticospinal Fibers Within the Spinal Cord Functions Primary Motor Cortex Primary Somatosensory Cortex Supplementary and Premotor Area Cortices Role of the Posterior Parietal Cortex Summary of the Components and Functions of the Corticospinal Tract The Corticobulbar Tracts Lesions of Corticobulbar Fibers That Supply Nuclei of Cranial Nerves Other Projections of the Corticobulbar Tracts To Sensory Relay Nuclei Corticoreticular Fibers Cortical Projections to the Red Nucleus Descending Motor Systems From the Brainstem Reticulospinal Tracts Vestibulospinal Tracts Rubrospinal Tract Tectospinal Tract The Upper Motor Neuron Syndrome 19 The Basal Ganglia Introduction Composition of the Basal Ganglia Afferent Source of the Basal Ganglia Internal Connections of the Basal Ganglia Connections of the Neostriatum With the Globus Pallidus Connections of the Neostriatum With the Substantia Nigra Connections Between the Globus Pallidus and Subthalamic Nucleus Output of the Basal Ganglia Functional Mechanisms of the Basal Ganglia Possible Role of Intrinsic Circuits Modulatory Role of Dopamine Movement Disorders Parkinson’s Disease Chorea (Huntington’s Disease) Hemiballism Athetosis Dystonia Tardive Dyskinesia Tourette’s Syndrome Restless Legs Syndrome Myoclonus Essential Tremor 20 The Cerebellum Introduction Gross Organization of the Cerebellum Afferent Connections of the Cerebellum Spinal Cord (Spinocerebellum) Dorsal (Posterior) Spinocerebellar Tract Ventral (Anterior) Spinocerebellar Tract Cuneocerebellar Tract Rostral Spinocerebellar Tract Brainstem Inferior Olivary Nucleus Brainstem Structures Associated With Posture and Balance Cerebral Cortex Red Nucleus Deep Pontine Nuclei Other Inputs to the Cerebellar Cortex Tectum Trigeminal System Monoaminergic Systems The Anatomical and Functional Organization of the Cerebellar Cortex Mossy and Climbing Fibers Mossy Fibers Climbing Fibers Cerebellar Cortex Histology Granular Cell Layer Purkinje Cell Layer Molecular Layer Functional Properties of the Cerebellar Cortex Efferent Projections of the Cerebellar Cortex: The Feedback Circuitry Efferent Connections of the Vestibulocerebellum and Spinocerebellum Efferent Connections of the Cerebellar Hemispheres Motor Learning and the Cerebellum Cerebellar Disorders Ataxia Hypotonia Cerebellar Nystagmus and Gait Ataxia Syndromes Associated With the Midline Region of the Cerebellar Cortex Syndromes Associated With the Cerebellar Hemispheres Section vi Integrative Systems 21 The Autonomic Nervous System Introduction Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Division Spinal Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons Paravertebral Ganglia and the Sympathetic Chains Prevertebral Ganglia Functions of the Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Division Brainstem Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons Spinal Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons Functions of the Parasympathetic Nervous System Enteric Nervous System Nonadrenergic Noncholinergic Neurotransmission Autonomic Innervation of Some Selected Organs Upper Eyelid Iris and the Ciliary Body of the Eye Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Sublingual and Submandibular Salivary Glands Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Parotid Salivary Glands Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Lacrimal Glands Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Heart Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Lungs Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Gastrointestinal Tract Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Adrenal Medulla (Suprarenal Gland) Kidney Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Urinary Bladder Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Afferent Innervation Somatic Innervation Micturition Male Reproductive System Erectile Tissue Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Somatic Innervation Afferent Innervation Male Sexual Response Male Erectile Dysfunction Female Reproductive System Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Somatic Innervation Afferent Innervation Blood Vessels Sympathetic Innervation Parasympathetic Innervation Systemic Blood Pressure Neurotransmitters in the Autonomic Nervous System Preganglionic Terminals Postganglionic Terminals Major Receptors Involved in the Autonomic Nervous System Cholinergic Receptors Adrenergic Receptors Brainstem Areas Regulating Cardiovascular Function The Nucleus of the Solitary Tract Caudal Ventrolateral Medullary Depressor Area Rostral Ventrolateral Medullary Pressor Area Nucleus Ambiguus Intermediolateral Cell Column Baroreceptor Reflex Cardiopulmonary Reflex Brainstem Areas Regulating Respiratory Function Respiratory Neuronal Groups Chemoreceptor Reflex Selected Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System Orthostatic Hypotension Horner’s Syndrome Argyll Robertson Pupil Hirschsprung’s Disease (Megacolon) Frey’s Syndrome Raynaud’s Disease Congestive Heart Failure Chagas’ Disease Neurogenic Bladder 22 The Reticular Formation Introduction Anatomical Organization of the Reticular Formation General Characteristics Afferent Connections Sensory Systems Motor Systems Autonomic (and Higher Order Visceral Regulatory) Regions Efferent Projections Organizational Considerations Pathways to Regions Mediating Sensory Functions and Effects on Cortical Excitability Levels Pathways to Regions Mediating Motor Functions Pathways Mediating Autonomic Functions Pathways Modulating Functions of the Hypothalamus and Limbic System Sleep and Wakefulness Stages of Sleep Rapid Eye Movement (Paradoxical) Sleep and Its Anatomical Loci Role of Other Regions in Sleep and Wakefulness Sleep Disorders Narcolepsy Other Conditions Associated With Hypersomnia Insomnia Somnambulism (Sleepwalking) Night Terrors Restless Legs Syndrome Sleep Apnea Sleep Disorders in Psychiatric Patients Coma 23 The Hypothalamus Introduction Hypothalamic Anatomy Hypothalamic Nuclei Connections of the Hypothalamus Afferent Connections Efferent Projections Nature and Functions of Hypothalamic Peptides Hormones That Target the Anterior Pituitary Growth Hormone Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Gonadotropic Hormones Prolactin Other Peptides Found in the Hypothalamus Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide Cholecystokinin Neurotensin Substance P Pro-Opiomelanocortin Peptides Angiotensin II Overview of the Integrative Functions of the Hypothalamus Regulation of Cardiovascular Processes Hypothalamic Control of Cardiovascular Functions Temperature Regulation Feeding Behavior Early Concept on Regulation of Feeding More Recent Views Signals That Induce Feeding Signals That Induce Satiety An Overall View Drinking Behavior Sexual Behavior Aggression and Rage Biological Rhythms Sleep Dysfunctions of the Hypothalamus Hyperthermia Genital Dystrophy and Abnormalities in Sexual Development Feeding, Obesity, and Emaciation Diabetes Insipidus Effects Upon the Cardiovascular System: Hypertension and Horner’s Syndrome Sleep Disorders Aggression and Rage 24 The Limbic System Introduction Hippocampal Formation Histology and Local Anatomical Connections Afferent Connections Efferent Connections Functions and Dysfunctions of the Hippocampal Formation Aggression and Rage Endocrine Functions Learning and Memory Functions of the Hippocampal Formation Septal Area Histology Afferent Connections Efferent Connections Functions of the Septal Area Related Basal Forebrain Nuclei Amygdala Histology Afferent Connections Efferent Connections Functions and Dysfunctions of the Amygdala Limbic Components of the Cerebral Cortex Anatomical Connections Functions of the Cerebral Cortex Prefrontal Cortex Anterior Cingulate Gyrus Pathological Activity Within Limbic Circuits Measurement of Brain Activity: The Electroencephalogram Epilepsy 25 The Thalamus and Cerebral Cortex Introduction Anatomical and Functional Characteristics of the Gray Matter of the Cerebral Cortex Morphological Features Cytoarchitectonic Division of the Cerebral Cortex Neurotransmitters Cortical Layers Associated With Inputs and Outputs Excitability Characteristics of Neurons Within a Cortical Column Afferent Connections of the Cerebral Cortex The Thalamus Defining Characteristics of Thalamic Nuclei Functional Organization of the Thalamus Other (Nonthalamic) Regions That Project to the Cerebral Cortex Brainstem Reticular Formation Forebrain Localization of Function Within the Cerebral Cortex The Parietal Lobe Effects of Lesions Regions Associated With Visual Functions Projection Patterns From the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Analysis of Form Perception Features of Cortical Columns Within the Occipital Cortex Functions of the Temporal Neocortex Inferotemporal Cortex (Inferior Temporal and Occipitotemporal [Fusiform] Gyri) Middle Temporal Gyrus Superior Temporal Gyrus Effects of Lesions of the Occipital and Temporal Regions of the Cortex Regions Associated With Speech Deficits Temporal–Parietal Region (Wernicke’s Area) Frontal Lobe (Broca’s Area) Functions of the Frontal Lobe Motor Regions of the Cortex Summary and Review of Descending Cortical Pathways Lesions of the Motor Regions of the Frontal Lobe Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex General Functions of the Cerebral Cortex: Cerebral Dominance, Cortical Excitability, and Learning and Memory Cerebral Dominance Role of the Corpus Callosum in Hemispheric Transfer of Information Examples of Cerebral Dominance Cortical Excitability: A Summary Learning and Memory Disorders Affecting Cognitive Processes and Mental Status 26 Blood Supply of the Central Nervous System Introduction Arterial Supply of the Brain Internal Carotid Arteries The Ophthalmic Artery The Posterior Communicating Artery The Anterior Choroidal Artery The Anterior Cerebral Artery The Middle Cerebral Artery Vertebro-Basilar Circulation The Vertebral Artery The Anterior Spinal Artery The Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery The Posterior Spinal Artery The Basilar Artery The Anterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery The Labyrinthine (Internal Auditory) Artery The Pontine Arteries The Superior Cerebellar Artery The Posterior Cerebral Arteries Cerebral Arterial Circle (Circle of Willis) Watershed Brain Areas Meningeal Arteries Venous Drainage of the Brain The Sinuses The Superior Sagittal Sinus The Inferior Sagittal Sinus The Transverse Sinuses The Confluence of Sinuses The Cavernous Sinuses The Sphenoparietal Sinuses The Cerebral Veins The Superficial Cerebral Veins The Deep Cerebral Veins The Meningeal Veins The Spinal Cord Arteries Posterior Spinal Arteries Anterior Spinal Artery The Spinal Medullary Arteries Radicular Arteries Veins 27 Vascular Syndromes Introduction Neuroimaging Computed Tomography Magnetic Resonance Imaging Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Magnetic Resonance Angiography Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Positron Emission Tomography Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography Angiography (Arteriography) Vascular Syndromes Cerebral Vascular Syndromes Anterior Cerebral Artery Syndrome Middle Cerebral Artery Syndrome Posterior Cerebral Artery Syndrome Midbrain Vascular Syndromes Weber’s Syndrome Claude’s Syndrome Parinaud’s Syndrome Benedikt’s Syndrome Superior Cerebellar Artery Syndrome Pontine Vascular Syndromes Caudal Basal Pontine Syndrome Locked-in Syndrome Medial Tegmental Pontine Syndrome Caudal Tegmental Pontine Syndrome One-and-a-Half Syndrome Rostral Basal Pontine Syndrome Dorsolateral Tegmental Pontine Syndrome Rostral Tegmental Pontine Syndrome Medullary Vascular Syndromes Lateral Medullary Syndrome Medial Medullary Syndrome Dorsal Medullary Syndrome Hematomas Epidural Hematoma Subdural Hematoma Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Stroke Watershed Stroke 28 Behavioral and Psychiatric Disorders Introduction Schizophrenia Behavioral Aspects Major Subtypes Paranoid Schizophrenia Disorganized (Hebephrenic) Schizophrenia Catatonic Schizophrenia Undifferentiated Schizophrenia Course of Development Hereditary Factors Brain Abnormalities Neurochemical Factors Dopamine Serotonin Other Transmitters Drug Treatments Depression and Other Mood Disorders Major Depressive (Unipolar) Disorder Bipolar Disorder Dysthymia and Cyclothymia Hereditary Factors Brain Abnormalities Neurochemical Factors and Drug Treatments Dopamine Norepinephrine Serotonin The Role of Lithium for Treatment of Bipolar Disorder Neuroendocrine Function and Sleep Anxiety Disorders and Drug Treatments Panic Disorder Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological System Disorder) Generalized Anxiety Disorder Autism Spectrum Disorders Substance Abuse and Brain Function Neural Mechanisms Molecular Sites Brain Circuits Mediating the Rewarding Effects of Drugs Examples of Specific Drugs of Abuse Hallucinogens Opioids Drugs of Abuse Used by Those Afflicted with Anxiolytic Disorders Stimulants Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa Glossary Index