Evolution nervous systems 1-2

0.00 Evolution of Nervous Systems - A Comprehensive Reference......Page 1 Common Plan versus Diversity......Page 2 Scala Naturae versus Phylogenetic Bush......Page 4 Relative Size versus Absolute Size......Page 5 Natural Selection versus Developmental Constraints......Page 8 One Law, Many Laws, or None......Page 10 Conclusions and Prospects......Page 11 References......Page 13 Further Reading......Page 16 Introduction to Metazoan Phylogeny......Page 17 Molecules......Page 18 Methods......Page 20 Nonbilaterians and Acoelomorpha......Page 21 Ecdysozoa......Page 23 Nonbilaterians: Porifera, Placozoa, Ctenophora, Cnidaria, and Myxozoa......Page 24 Echinodermata, Hemichordata, and Xenoturbella......Page 27 Chordata: Urochordata and Cephalochordata......Page 29 Craniata and Vertebrata......Page 30 Ecdysozoa......Page 31 Panarthropoda: Arthropoda, Onychophora, and Tardigrada......Page 32 Nematoida: Nematoda and Nematomorpha......Page 33 Eutrochozoa: Nemertea, Mollusca, Sipuncula, Annelida, Echiura, Siboglinidae, and Myzostomida......Page 34 Platyzoa: Platyhelminthes, Gnathostomulida, Rotifera, Acanthocephala, Entoprocta, Cycliophora, and Micrognathozoa......Page 36 Conclusion and Future Progress......Page 37 References......Page 38 Further Reading......Page 40 Glossary......Page 41 Introduction to Character State Reconstruction and Evolution......Page 42 Character State Polarity......Page 43 Adaptation......Page 44 Phylogenetic Trees......Page 45 Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Optimization......Page 47 Which Optimization Approach to Use?......Page 48 Correlative Comparative Methods......Page 49 Limitations of Methods......Page 50 Conclusions......Page 51 References......Page 52 Relevant Websites......Page 53 Glossary......Page 54 Introduction......Page 55 A Common Bauplan for Animal Development?......Page 56 From Unity of Composition to Unity of Nervous Systems?......Page 57 Hox Genes Are Involved in the Regional Specification of Neuronal Identity......Page 58 Cephalic Gap Genes in Regionalization of the Anterior Brain: The otd/Otx Genes......Page 60 Antagonistic Activity of Dpp/BMP-4 and sog/Chordin......Page 61 vnd/Nkx, ind/Gsh, and msh/Msx: Specification of Longitudinal Columns......Page 62 The CNS Midline: Pattern Formation and Axonal Guidance......Page 63 Molecular Phylogeny: Several Possibilities......Page 64 A Simple Nerve Net at the Base of Nervous System Evolution?......Page 65 References......Page 68 Further Reading......Page 71 Glossary......Page 72 Introduction......Page 73 Internal Constraints in Development and Evolution. Epigenetic Constraints......Page 74 The Principle of Modularity: Genetic Cascades, Cells, Cell Fields, and Organs......Page 75 Morphogenetic Fields as Evolutionary and Developmental Higher-Order Modules Linking Genotype and Phenotype......Page 76 Field Homology: A Useful Concept in Studies of Brain Evolution......Page 79 In Search of the Brain Archetype in Vertebrates: Developmental Regulatory Genes as Useful Tools for Deciphering the Archetype and Identifying Homologous Fields......Page 80 Evolution of Homologous Fields in the Brain: The Case of the Pallium......Page 81 Evolution of New Fields in the Vertebrate Brain: Analysis of the Lamprey......Page 82 References......Page 83 Further Reading......Page 86 Reelin Signaling During Cortical Development and Evolution......Page 87 The Puzzle of Cajal-Retzius Cells......Page 91 Redundant Expression of Reelin in Mice: What Could It Teach Us about Evolution?......Page 92 References......Page 93 Further Reading......Page 95 Glossary......Page 96 Why Evolutionary Neuroethology?......Page 97 The Basic Plan of the Decapod Central Nervous System......Page 98 The New and Ancestral Modes of Swimming......Page 99 Digging Preceded Uropod Beating: The Mosaic Ancestry of Sand Crab Digging Behaviors......Page 100 Neurobehavioral Mechanisms and Biomechanics are Inseparable......Page 101 Hinged versus Single-Pivot Joints......Page 102 Neuromuscular Repercussions of Increasing a Joint’s Freedom of Movement......Page 104 Altered (and conserved) functions of conserved neuromusculature......Page 105 Intermediates between Sand Crab and Crayfish Tailfans......Page 106 TUSRs evolved twice......Page 107 The extraordinary nonspiking TUSR of hippid sand crabs......Page 108 Coordinate fourth legs and tail?......Page 110 Testable hypotheses from comparative studies......Page 111 Understanding the present by reconstructing the past......Page 113 References......Page 114 Further Reading......Page 116 Glossary......Page 117 Introduction......Page 118 Variation Between Classes......Page 119 Variation Within Classes......Page 120 Relative Brain Size......Page 121 Costs......Page 123 Benefits......Page 124 Ecology and Lifestyles......Page 125 Mammals......Page 126 Birds......Page 128 Insects......Page 131 Conclusion......Page 132 References......Page 133 Further Reading......Page 137 Glossary......Page 138 Introduction......Page 139 Stars and Stripes in the Cortex......Page 140 Cortical Magnification in Star-Nosed Moles......Page 142 Conclusions......Page 144 References......Page 145 Further Reading......Page 146 Introduction......Page 147 Developmental Mechanisms can Accommodate New Neurons and Trigger Matching Changes in Connected Populations......Page 148 Role of ephrins in retinotectal map formation......Page 149 Role of lateral inhibition in conservation of response properties......Page 150 Role of Sensory Deprivation in Specificity of Thalamocortical Pathways......Page 151 The cross-modal plasticity paradigm......Page 152 Anatomical basis for visual responses and topography in cross-modal A1......Page 153 Molecular specification of cortical areas through axon guidance......Page 154 References......Page 157 Further Reading......Page 160 Relevant Websites......Page 161 Introduction......Page 162 Polarization of Migrating Neurons......Page 163 Nucleokinesis......Page 165 Two Primary Modes of Migration in the Developing CNS......Page 166 Evolutionary Advantages of Different Modes of Migration......Page 168 Mechanisms of Radial Migration......Page 169 Migration of Cortical Interneurons......Page 171 Migration of Facial Branchiomotor Neurons......Page 173 Migration in the Postnatal Brain......Page 174 References......Page 175 Relevant Websites......Page 179 Introduction......Page 180 Structure and organization of the growth cone......Page 181 Growth cones change their morphologies in response to the environment......Page 182 Axon-Pathfinding Concepts......Page 183 Identification of Guidance Molecules......Page 184 Netrin-1s and their receptors......Page 186 Ephrins and Eph receptors......Page 188 General organization of the retinal pathway......Page 189 Pathfinding across and out of the retina......Page 190 Axon divergence at the chiasm......Page 191 Pathfinding in the optic tract......Page 192 The vertebrate spinal cord......Page 193 Local Translational Control......Page 195 Receptor Interaction......Page 197 Axon Guidance and Evolution......Page 198 References......Page 199 Further Reading......Page 202 Glossary......Page 203 What Are Action Potentials?......Page 204 AP Waveform Properties......Page 205 Molecular Determinants of APs......Page 206 During Synapse Formation and Early Circuit Activity......Page 207 Developmental Regulation of the AP......Page 208 General Principles......Page 209 Distribution of Ion Channels during Developmental Myelination......Page 210 Transcriptional Regulation......Page 211 Alternative splicing......Page 218 Surface membrane insertion......Page 220 Glycosylation......Page 221 References......Page 222 Further Reading......Page 230 Glossary......Page 231 Ectodermal Derivatives......Page 232 Conserved Pathways and Evolutionary Transitions in Ectodermal Development......Page 234 Bmp signaling and DV inversion......Page 235 Hox genes and AP......Page 236 Modularity in Ectodermal Evolution......Page 237 Heterochrony......Page 238 Gene Duplication and Divergence in Ectodermal Patterning......Page 239 Neural Crest and Vertebrate Origins......Page 240 Neural Crest and the Origins of Jaws and Middle-Ear Bones......Page 241 Morphology - Neural Crest and Neural Tube Morphogenesis......Page 243 Summary and Outlook......Page 244 References......Page 245 Further Reading......Page 249 Introduction......Page 250 Methodological Issues......Page 251 Exuberance and Selection versus Connectional Specificity......Page 252 Multiple Factors Regulate the Maintenance/Elimination of Exuberant Connections......Page 253 More Developmental Plasticity in Cortical Areas Which Evolved More?......Page 255 References......Page 256 Further Reading......Page 258 Neuron Arbor Optimization......Page 259 Component Placement Optimization......Page 260 Further Reading......Page 262 Glossary......Page 263 The Interpretation of Scaling Laws......Page 264 Detail......Page 266 When Form Follows Function......Page 267 Changing the Number of Dimensions from One Map to the Next......Page 268 Internal Consistency......Page 270 Grade Shifts......Page 271 Further Reading......Page 272 Glossary......Page 273 Further Reading......Page 277 Glossary......Page 278 Definition of the Nervous System......Page 280 Basal Metazoan Phylogeny......Page 281 Proposals for the Evolution of the First Nervous System......Page 282 Introduction......Page 285 Non-Nervous Conduction Outside of the Animal Kingdom......Page 286 Porifera: Specialized Cells and Electrical Conduction......Page 287 Cnidarian Nervous Systems: Multiple Levels of Organization......Page 289 Cnidarian Nervous Systems: Ion Channels and Neuroactive Substances......Page 292 Placozoa versus Cnidaria......Page 293 Genetic Control of Neurogenesis in Cnidaria and Bilateria......Page 294 Genetic Control of Anteroposterior Patterning in Cnidaria and Bilateria......Page 295 Genetic Control of Dorsoventral Specification in Cnidaria and Bilateria......Page 296 Genes Involved in Eye Development in Cnidaria and Bilateria......Page 298 References......Page 299 Further Reading......Page 303 Introduction......Page 305 Onychophora......Page 306 Myriapoda......Page 307 Neurogenesis......Page 308 Brain......Page 309 Ventral nerve cord......Page 310 Ventral Organ Formation......Page 311 Thickening of the neuroectoderm......Page 312 Nuclear migration and origin of neural stem cells......Page 313 Ganglion formation......Page 315 Formation of Central Axon Tracts......Page 316 Mechanisms for Neurogenesis......Page 318 Evidence from onychophoran neurogenesis......Page 319 Mode of Formation of Central Axon Pathways......Page 320 Axon growth in myriapod embryos......Page 321 References......Page 322 Further Reading......Page 324 Introduction......Page 325 Identification of Homologous Head (and Brain) Regions in Different Arthropods by the Expression of Hox Genes and orthodenticle......Page 326 Insects......Page 328 The Labrum - Insights into an Endless Dispute......Page 329 A Neuromeric Model of the Brain in Drosophila......Page 331 Antennal Lobes......Page 333 References......Page 334 Further Reading......Page 336 Glossary......Page 337 Commissural Organization and the Segmental Body Plan......Page 338 The Postoral Brain......Page 340 The Split Deutocerebrum: Evidence from Identified Neurons of the Adult Brain......Page 344 References......Page 346 Further Reading......Page 347 Color Vision: Definition and Properties......Page 348 General Principles......Page 349 Arthropods......Page 350 Visual Pigment Tuning: Sensitivity and Contrast Hypotheses......Page 351 Further Reading......Page 352 Introduction......Page 354 The Behaviors......Page 355 Comparing the Melibe and Tritonia Swim CPGs......Page 356 A Common Nervous System......Page 357 Parallel Evolution......Page 358 References......Page 359 Further Reading......Page 360 Relevant Websites......Page 361 Introduction......Page 362 Neuron Structure and Physiology - Identified Neurons......Page 364 Voltage-Gated Ion Channels......Page 365 Muscle and Neuromuscular Factors......Page 366 Generation of Functional Patterns by Defined Circuits......Page 368 Crustacean Cardiac Ganglion......Page 369 Modulation of heart rhythmicity......Page 372 Leech Heart......Page 373 Snail Feeding CPG......Page 375 The Crustacean Stomatogastric System......Page 377 The stomatogastric CPGs......Page 378 Inputs from higher centers......Page 379 The canonical STG circuit......Page 380 Chemical modulation......Page 381 Evolution of the stomatogastric system......Page 382 References......Page 386 Relevant Website......Page 389 Glossary......Page 390 Introduction......Page 391 Selection of Habitat, Feeding, and Foraging......Page 392 Elemental Forms of Associative Learning......Page 394 Invertebrate Classical Conditioning......Page 395 Invertebrate Operant Conditioning......Page 397 Invertebrate Composite Operant Conditioning......Page 399 Nonelemental Forms of Associative Learning......Page 400 Selective Attention......Page 403 Rule Learning......Page 404 Conditional Discriminations: Occasion Setting and Contextual Learning......Page 405 Memory Systems......Page 407 Physiological Correlates of Memory Systems......Page 408 Working Memory: Capacity and Duration......Page 409 Reconsolidation......Page 410 Representation and Planning, Observatory Learning; Navigation; Communication and Individual Recognition......Page 411 Observatory Learning......Page 412 Navigation......Page 413 The map concept and its experimental support......Page 415 The cognitive dimensions of dance communication in honeybees......Page 416 Individual Recognition......Page 418 Collective Cognition......Page 419 Conclusion......Page 420 References......Page 421 Further Reading......Page 429 A Short History: Nature versus Nurture......Page 430 Characterization......Page 431 Genes and Mating Behavior......Page 432 Characterization of the System......Page 433 Neurohormones and Aggression......Page 434 Summary......Page 435 References......Page 436 Further Reading......Page 437 Why Identifying Sleep in Invertebrates is Important......Page 438 Posture......Page 439 Micro-Behaviors During Sleep in the Honeybee......Page 440 Electrophysiology of Sleep in Invertebrates......Page 441 Conclusions......Page 442 Further Reading......Page 443 Introduction......Page 444 Expression of Genes for Ca2+-Signaling Pathway Proteins in the MBs of the Honeybee Brain......Page 446 Ecdysteroid Regulated Genes (Mbk1-1/AmE93 and AmE74) in the MBs......Page 448 Gene Expression of Preprotachykinin Gene in the Honeybee Brain and Other Insects......Page 452 References......Page 454 Further Reading......Page 456 Glossary......Page 457 Introduction......Page 458 Principles of Comparative Neuroanatomy......Page 459 Craniates (cyclostomes and gnathostomes)......Page 461 Cephalochordates......Page 463 Echinoderms......Page 464 Large neurons......Page 465 Sensory afferents......Page 466 Immunocytochemically identified neuron populations......Page 467 Catecholaminergic neurons......Page 468 Making and Placing Neurons: The Evolution of Cell Fate and Regional Patterning......Page 469 Eyes......Page 474 Summary and Conclusion......Page 475 Acknowledgments......Page 476 References......Page 477 Further Reading......Page 480 Introduction......Page 481 Deuterostome Phylogeny and Hemichordate Biology......Page 482 Morphological Characteristics of the Hemichordate Nervous System......Page 483 Proposed Morphological Homology between Vertebrate Central Nervous System and Hemichordate Nervous System......Page 486 Molecular Patterning Events in the Anteroposterior Patterning of the Hemichordate Nervous System......Page 487 Evolutionary Interpretations of the Molecular Data from Hemichordates......Page 489 Life History Considerations......Page 490 Future Directions......Page 491 References......Page 492 Further Reading......Page 494 Introduction: Scala Naturae Concept is Hard to Kill......Page 495 Diversity and Bauplan of Fish Brains from Agnathans to Lungfishes......Page 496 Bauplan: The Shared Ancestral Brain Morphotype......Page 500 Extension of Bauplan: Phylotypic Stage in Brain Development......Page 501 Brain Weight-Body Weight Data......Page 503 How the World and Brain Interconnect: The Peripheral Nervous System......Page 504 Actinopterygians......Page 505 Chondrichthyans......Page 507 Integrative and Motor Systems......Page 508 Actinopterygians......Page 509 Agnathans......Page 513 References......Page 514 Further Reading......Page 516 Glossary......Page 517 Gross morphology......Page 520 Primary afferents......Page 521 Motor neurons......Page 522 Motor nuclei......Page 523 Ascending pathways of the medulla oblongata......Page 524 Isthmic region and tegmentum......Page 525 Retina......Page 526 Organization of retinal projections......Page 528 Projection specificity of retinal ganglion cells and morphology of terminal arbors......Page 530 Cytoarchitecture of the tectum mesencephali......Page 531 Morphology and location of neuron types in the tectum......Page 532 Nonretinal afferents......Page 535 Descending pathways......Page 537 Ascending pathways......Page 539 Tectum mesencephali......Page 540 Response properties of RGCs......Page 541 Neurons......Page 542 Pretectum......Page 544 Dorsal and ventral thalamus......Page 545 Response properties of thalamic neurons......Page 548 Hypothalamus......Page 549 Medial pallium......Page 552 Dorsal pallium......Page 554 Lateral and ventral pallium......Page 555 Summary......Page 556 Striatopallidal complex......Page 557 Ventral striatopallidal complex: nucleus accumbens/ventral striatum and ventral pallidum......Page 559 Amygdaloid complex......Page 560 The Nervous System of Amphibians: Primitive or Simplified?......Page 561 The thalamopallial system......Page 565 Pallium......Page 567 The visual system......Page 568 Amygdaloid complex......Page 569 Summary and Conclusions......Page 570 References......Page 571 Further Reading......Page 579 Relevant Websites......Page 580 Introduction......Page 581 How Do Differences in Brain Organization Evolve?......Page 582 Gene Expression......Page 583 Reptiles......Page 584 Reptile to bird transition......Page 585 Summary......Page 586 Reptiles......Page 587 Amphibian to reptile transition......Page 588 Reptile to mammal transition......Page 589 Amphibian to reptile transition......Page 590 Olfactory System......Page 592 Reptiles......Page 593 Hindbrain: Cranial Motor Nuclei......Page 594 Abducens nuclei (VI)......Page 595 Dorsal Thalamus......Page 596 Reptiles......Page 597 Reptile to bird transition......Page 598 Summary......Page 599 Reptiles......Page 600 Reptile to mammal transition......Page 602 Homologues of the DVR and pallial thickening......Page 603 References......Page 605 Further Reading......Page 612 Crocodilian Phylogeny......Page 613 Anatomy......Page 614 Mating......Page 615 Physiology......Page 616 Comparisons with Other Reptilians......Page 617 Further Reading......Page 618 Glossary......Page 619 Introduction......Page 620 Finding the Homologue of Neocortex in the Pallium of Nonmammals......Page 621 Pallial subdivisions in mammals and neocortical origin......Page 623 Pallial subdivisions in nonmammals: the dorsal pallium in birds and reptiles......Page 625 Morphological landmarks and molecular markers: problematic delimitation of the dorsal pallium in birds and reptiles......Page 626 Connections......Page 627 A Primary Visual Area in the Dorsal Pallium of Birds and Reptiles and Its Comparison to V1 of Mammals......Page 629 A Primary Somatosensory Area in the Dorsal Pallium of Birds and Reptiles and Its Comparison to S1 of Mammals......Page 630 Do Birds and/or Reptiles Possess a Somatomotor Dorsal Pallial Area Comparable to M1 of Mammals?......Page 631 Other Functional Areas in the Pallium of Birds and Reptiles and Comparison to Mammals......Page 632 Different Development and Adult Organization of Neocortical Layers and Hyperpallial Subdivisions......Page 633 Layers and Subdivisions of the Reptilian Dorsal Cortex. Possibilities and Uncertainties on Dorsal Pallial Evolution......Page 635 Visual Area: Retinotopy, Signal Types, Binocularity, and Perception......Page 636 Somatosensory Area: Somatotopy, Signal Types, Perception, and Multiple Maps......Page 640 Conclusions......Page 641 References......Page 642 Further Reading......Page 650 Visual Telencephalon in Reptiles......Page 651 Geniculocortical Projections......Page 652 Cellular Structure of Turtle Visual Cortex......Page 654 Responses of Visual Cortex Neurons to Visual Stimuli......Page 656 Acknowledgments......Page 657 References......Page 658 Further Reading......Page 659 Song: A Learned Behavior Used for Communication......Page 660 The Song System of Oscine Birds......Page 661 A Basal Ganglia Circuit Required for Song Learning......Page 662 Evolution of Avian Vocal Control Systems......Page 663 References......Page 665 Further Reading......Page 667 What is Vocal Learning......Page 668 Consensus Brain Systems of Vocal Learners......Page 669 Brain Regions and Connectivity......Page 670 Brain Lesions......Page 674 Brain Activation......Page 675 Consensus Auditory System......Page 677 Evolution of Vocal Learning Systems from a Common Motor Pathway......Page 678 References......Page 679 Further Reading......Page 682 Introduction......Page 683 Analyses of Taxonomic Distributions......Page 684 Experimental Tests......Page 685 Is Social Intelligence Different from Other Types of Intelligence?......Page 686 References......Page 687 Further Reading......Page 689 Introduction......Page 690 Food-Storing Behavior......Page 691 Subdivisions......Page 692 Extrinsic projections......Page 693 Neuronal nitric oxide synthase in the avian HP......Page 695 Adaptive modification of hippocampal size as a result of food-storing......Page 696 Evolutionary Considerations......Page 697 References......Page 698 Relevant Websites......Page 699 Ecology and Sensory Brain Structures......Page 700 Ecology and the Hippocampus......Page 701 Development......Page 702 Sex Differences......Page 703 Summary......Page 704 References......Page 705 Further Reading......Page 706 Glossary......Page 707 Abbreviations:Mammals ......Page 708 Abbreviations:Birds ......Page 709 Introduction......Page 710 Organization of the Cerebral Hemispheres......Page 711 The Pallial Amygdala......Page 712 The cortical and basolateral divisions of the amygdala......Page 713 Compartments of the pallium: Lateropallial and ventropallial portions of the mammalian amygdala......Page 714 Striatal and pallidal compartments within the subpallial amygdala......Page 715 The extended amygdala: A striatopallidal structure or a third subpallial compartment?......Page 716 Functional Neuroanatomy of the Mammalian Amygdala......Page 717 The amygdala as part of the olfactory and vomeronasal systems......Page 718 Brainstem sensory afferents: The amygdala as part of the gustatory, viscerosensory, and nociceptive systems......Page 719 Highly processed sensory inputs: The cortical afferents to the pallial and subpallial amygdala......Page 720 Redundant sensory pathways to the amygdala?......Page 721 Hormonal inputs to the amygdala......Page 722 Outputs of the Amygdala......Page 723 Projections from the pallial amygdala to the hypothalamus......Page 724 Amygdaloid projections to the brainstem......Page 725 Amygdalocortical and amygdalothalamic projections......Page 726 The Mammalian Amygdala: A Summary......Page 727 The Amygdala of Reptiles......Page 730 The olfacto-recipient pallial amygdala of reptiles......Page 731 Lateropallial and ventropallial territories in the amygdala of reptiles......Page 732 The olfactory cortical amygdala......Page 733 The deep lateropallial amygdala: The DLA as the reptilian homologue to the B nucleus of mammals......Page 735 The PDVRvm and LA constitute the reptilian homologue to the ABp of mammals......Page 736 The dorsomedial PDVR as the sensory interface of the reptilian amygdala......Page 737 Amygdalocortical projections......Page 738 The Reptilian Subpallial Amygdala......Page 739 The reptilian extended amygdala: The identity and divisions of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis......Page 741 The medial extended amygdala of reptiles......Page 742 The Reptilian Amygdala: A Summary......Page 743 The Amygdala of Birds......Page 744 On the Nomenclature and Architecture of the Telencephalon of Birds......Page 745 Olfactory areas in the avian pallium: The avian cortical amygdala......Page 747 Lateral and ventral pallial derivatives in the caudal avian cerebral hemispheres......Page 748 Connections and Histochemistry of the Avian Pallial Amygdala: Comparative Implications......Page 749 Identity of the basal nucleus of the avian amygdala in the deep lateral pallium......Page 750 The homology between the AV/AM and the mammalian AB......Page 752 Amygdalocortical projections......Page 753 The occipitomesencephalic tract, the somatomotor arcopallium, and the significance of birdsong......Page 754 The medial extended amygdala of birds......Page 757 The central extended amygdala......Page 758 The Evolutionary Origins of the Amniote Amygdala......Page 760 Vomeronasal and olfactory projections to the amygdala in amphibians......Page 761 New data on the divisions of the amphibian pallium: The pallial amygdala......Page 762 The subpallial amygdala of amphibians......Page 763 The central extended amygdala of amphibians......Page 764 The roles of the central/basolateral amygdala......Page 765 Expression and acquisition of fear/aversion......Page 766 The roles of the medial extended amygdala......Page 768 The medial amygdala and reproductive function......Page 769 The medial amygdala: Defensive behavior and predator-elicited fear......Page 770 Evolution of the Emotional Brain: The Amygdala and the Evaluation of Incoming Stimuli......Page 771 References......Page 773 Further Reading......Page 786 Introduction......Page 787 Adaptations to General Constraints......Page 788 Optical Systems of Eyes......Page 789 Lenses: Multiple Protein Types and Gene Sharing......Page 790 Capturing Light: The Opsin/Retinal Solution......Page 791 Origins of Eyes......Page 793 Developmental Evidence of Eye Evolution......Page 794 Functional Evidence about Eye Evolution......Page 796 How Did Eyes Evolve?......Page 797 References......Page 798 Relevant Websites......Page 800 Visual Pigments......Page 801 Molecular Bases of UV and Violet Vision......Page 802 Perspectives......Page 804 Further Reading......Page 805 What is Olfaction?......Page 806 Components of the Vertebrate Olfactory System......Page 808 Chordates and Basal Craniates......Page 811 Lampreys......Page 812 Cartilaginous Fishes: Sharks, Skates and Rays, and Chimaeras......Page 814 Ray-Finned Fishes......Page 816 Lobe-Finned Fishes: Lungfishes and Coelacanths......Page 821 Amphibians......Page 823 Tuatara......Page 828 Squamates: Amphisbaenians, lizards, and snakes......Page 829 Crocodilians......Page 832 Birds......Page 833 Turtles......Page 835 Mammals......Page 836 Evolutionary Changes in the Organization of the Olfactory Epithelium......Page 837 Evolutionary Changes in the Organization of the Olfactory Bulbs......Page 838 Evolutionary Changes in the Organization of Central Olfactory Projections......Page 840 Evolution of Vertebrate Olfactory Subsystems......Page 841 References......Page 842 Further Reading......Page 857 Glossary......Page 858 Vomeronasal Organ......Page 860 Accessory Olfactory Bulb......Page 862 Telencephalic Targets of the Accessory Olfactory Bulb......Page 863 Origins of the Vomeronasal System......Page 865 Further Reading......Page 866 Glossary......Page 867 Central Electrosensory Circuits......Page 868 Evolution......Page 869 References......Page 871 Further Reading......Page 872 Glossary......Page 873 What is Taste?......Page 874 Ecdysozoa......Page 875 Nematodes......Page 876 Arthropods......Page 877 Mollusks......Page 879 Taste in Vertebrates and Chordates......Page 880 Solitary Chemoreceptor Cells and Schreiner Organs......Page 881 Cell types......Page 883 The Specialized Taste Organ of Frogs......Page 885 Type I taste cell......Page 886 Type III taste cell......Page 887 Evolution of Taste Preference and Taste Receptors......Page 888 References......Page 889 Relevant Websites......Page 891 Introduction......Page 892 Encoding Sound: Similar Strategies in Birds and Mammals......Page 893 Organization of the Cochlear Nuclei in Mammals and Birds......Page 894 Intracellular Physiological Responses of Cochlear Nucleus Neurons in Birds and Mammals......Page 895 Precise Synaptic Transmission......Page 896 Potassium Conductances......Page 898 Coincidence Detection and Coding of ITDs......Page 899 Delay Line - Coincidence Detection Circuits in Birds......Page 900 ITD Detection Circuits in Mammals......Page 901 Summary and Conclusions......Page 902 References......Page 903 Further Reading......Page 906 Glossary......Page 907 Introduction......Page 908 Morphology of the Tectogeniculate Projection Neurons......Page 909 Location of the Pretectogeniculate Projection Neurons......Page 910 Location of the Pretectal Projections in the GLd: Light and Electron Microscopic Findings......Page 911 Functional Considerations......Page 912 References......Page 913 Further Reading......Page 914 Introduction......Page 916 Myelin Sheaths in Invertebrates......Page 917 Morphological Features of Vertebrate Myelin......Page 919 Biochemical and Molecular Features of Vertebrate Myelin Sheaths......Page 921 References......Page 925 Further Reading......Page 931 Introduction......Page 932 Approaches to Study Cell Proliferation in the Adult Brain......Page 933 Olfactory Bulb......Page 934 Dorsal Telencephalon......Page 936 Migration......Page 941 Guidance of the Migrating Young Cells......Page 945 Regulation of the Number of New Cells by Apoptotic Cell Death......Page 946 Neuronal Differentiation......Page 947 Why Do Fish Produce New Neurons in the Adult Brain? The Numerical Matching Hypothesis......Page 948 The