Fuel Cells Science and Engineering - Materials, Processes, Systems and Technology

Fuel cells are expected to play a major role in the future power supply that will transform to renewable, decentralized and fluctuating primary energies. At the same time the share of electric power will continually increase at the expense of thermal and mechanical energy not just in transportation, but also in households. Hydrogen as a perfect fuel for fuel cells and an outstanding and efficient means of bulk storage for renewable energy will spearhead this development together with fuel cells. Moreover, small fuel cells hold great potential for portable devices such as gadgets and medical applications such as pacemakers. This handbook will explore specific fuel cells within and beyond the mainstream development and focuses on materials and production processes for both SOFC and lowtemperature fuel cells, analytics and diagnostics for fuel cells, modeling and simulation as well as balance of plant design and components. As fuel cells are getting increasingly sophisticated and industrially developed the issues of quality assurance and methodology of development are included in this handbook. The contributions to this book come from an international panel of experts from academia, industry, institutions and government. This handbook is oriented toward people looking for detailed information on specific fuel cell types, their materials, production processes, modeling and analytics. Overview information on the contrary on mainstream fuel cells and applications are provided in the book 'Hydrogen and Fuel Cells', published in 2010.Content: Chapter 1 Technical Advancement of Fuel?Cell Research and Development (pages 1–42): Dr. Bernd Emonts, Ludger Blum, Thomas Grube, Werner Lehnert, Jurgen Mergel, Martin Muller and Ralf PetersChapter 2 Single?Chamber Fuel Cells (pages 43–66): Teko W. Napporn and Melanie KuhnChapter 3 Technology and Applications of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (pages 67–95): Barbara Bosio, Elisabetta Arato and Paolo GreppiChapter 4 Alkaline Fuel Cells (pages 97–129): Erich GulzowChapter 5 Micro Fuel Cells (pages 131–145): Ulf Groos and Dietmar GerteisenChapter 6 Principles and Technology of Microbial Fuel Cells (pages 147–184): Jan B. A. Arends, Joachim Desloover, Sebastia Puig and Willy VerstraeteChapter 7 Micro?Reactors for Fuel Processing (pages 185–217): Gunther KolbChapter 8 Regenerative Fuel Cells (pages 219–245): Martin MullerChapter 9 Advances in Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Development between 1995 and 2010 at Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH, Germany (pages 247–274): Vincent HaanappelChapter 10 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Electrode Fabrication by Infiltration (pages 275–299): Evren GunenChapter 11 Sealing Technology for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (pages 301–333): K. Scott WeilChapter 12 Phosphoric Acid, an Electrolyte for Fuel Cells – Temperature and Composition Dependence of Vapor Pressure and Proton Conductivity (pages 335–359): Carsten KorteChapter 13 Materials and Coatings for Metallic Bipolar Plates in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (pages 361–378): Heli Wang and John A. TurnerChapter 14 Nanostructured Materials for Fuel Cells (pages 379–406): John F. ElterChapter 15 Catalysis in Low?Temperature Fuel Cells – An Overview (pages 407–438): Sabine Schimpf and Michael BronChapter 16 Impedance Spectroscopy for High?Temperature Fuel Cells (pages 439–467): Ellen Ivers?Tiffee, Andre Leonide, Helge Schichlein, Volker Sonn and Andre WeberChapter 17 Post?Test Characterization of Solid Oxide Fuel?Cell Stacks (pages 469–492): Norbert H. Menzler and Peter BatfalskyChapter 18 In Situ Imaging at Large?Scale Facilities (pages 493–519): Christian Totzke, Ingo Manke and Werner LehnertChapter 19 Analytics of Physical Properties of Low?Temperature Fuel Cells (pages 521–541): Jurgen WackerlChapter 20 Degradation Caused by Dynamic Operation and Starvation Conditions (pages 543–570): Jan Hendrik Ohs, Ulrich S. Sauter and Sebastian MaassChapter 21 Quality Assurance for Characterizing Low?Temperature Fuel Cells (pages 571–595): Viktor Hacker, Eva Wallnofer?Ogris, Georgios Tsotridis and Thomas MalkowChapter 22 Methodologies for Fuel Cell Process Engineering (pages 597–644): Remzi Can Samsun and Ralf PetersChapter 23 Messages from Analytical Modeling of Fuel Cells (pages 645–668): Andrei KulikovskyChapter 24 Stochastic Modeling of Fuel?Cell Components (pages 669–702): Ralf Thiedmann, Gerd Gaiselmann, Werner Lehnert and Volker SchmidtChapter 25 Computational Fluid Dynamic Simulation Using Supercomputer Calculation Capacity (pages 703–732): Ralf Peters and Florian ScharfChapter 26 Modeling Solid Oxide Fuel Cells from the Macroscale to the Nanoscale (pages 733–766): Emily M. Ryan and Mohammad A. KhaleelChapter 27 Numerical Modeling of the Thermomechanically Induced Stress in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (pages 767–790): Murat PeksenChapter 28 Modeling of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (pages 791–817): Peter Heidebrecht, Silvia Piewek and Kai SundmacherChapter 29 High?Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Fuel?Cell Modeling (pages 819–838): Uwe ReimerChapter 30 Modeling of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel?Cell Components (pages 839–878): Yun Wang and Ken S. ChenChapter 31 Modeling of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells and Stacks (pages 879–916): Yun Wang and Ken S. ChenChapter 32 Principles of Systems Engineering (pages 917–961): Ludger Blum, Ralf Peters and Remzi Can SamsunChapter 33 System Technology for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (pages 963–1010): Nguyen Q. MinhChapter 34 Desulfurization for Fuel?Cell Systems (pages 1011–1044): Joachim Pasel and Ralf PetersChapter 35 Design Criteria and Components for Fuel Cell Powertrains (pages 1045–1073): Lutz Eckstein and Bruno GnorichChapter 36 Hybridization for Fuel Cells (pages 1075–1103): Jorg WilhelmChapter 37 Off?Grid Power Supply and Premium Power Generation (pages 1105–1117): Kerry?Ann AdamsonChapter 38 Demonstration Projects and Market Introduction (pages 1119–1150): Kristin DeasonChapter 39 A Sustainable Framework for International Collaboration: the IEA HIA and Its Strategic Plan for 2009–2015 (pages 1151–1179): Mary?Rose de ValladaresChapter 40 Overview of Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Organizations and Initiatives Worldwide (pages 1181–1209): Bernd EmontsChapter 41 Contributions for Education and Public Awareness (pages 1211–1222): Thorsteinn I. Sigfusson and Dr. Bernd Emonts Fuel Cell Science and Engineering......Page 3 Contents to Volume......Page 7 List of Contributors......Page 21 Part I Technology......Page 29 1.1 Introduction......Page 31 1.2.1 Tubular Concepts......Page 32 1.2.2 Planar Designs......Page 34 1.2.3 Actors and Major Areas of Development......Page 36 1.2.4 State of Cell and Stack Developments......Page 38 1.3.1 Actors and Major Areas of Development......Page 39 1.4 Representative Research Findings for DMFCs......Page 40 1.4.1 DMFCs for Portable Applications......Page 41 1.4.2 DMFCs for Light Traction......Page 42 1.5.1 Fuel Cells and Batteries for Propulsion......Page 45 1.5.2 On-Board Power Supply with Fuel Cells......Page 50 1.6.1 Stationary Applications in Building Technology......Page 52 1.7 Special Markets for Fuel Cells......Page 54 1.8.2 DMFC Battery Chargers......Page 55 1.8.3 Uninterruptable Power Supply/Backup Power......Page 57 1.9 Conclusion......Page 58 References......Page 60 2.1 Introduction......Page 71 2.2.1 Basic Principles of Single-Chamber Fuel Cell Operation......Page 72 2.2.2 Catalysis in SC-SOFCs......Page 74 2.2.3 Heat Production and Real Cell Temperature......Page 75 2.2.6 Anode Materials......Page 76 2.2.7 Cathode Materials......Page 77 2.3.1 Electrolyte-Supported SC-SOFCs......Page 78 2.3.2 Anode-Supported SC-SOFCs......Page 79 2.3.3.1 Cell Performance......Page 80 2.3.3.2 Miniaturization......Page 84 2.3.3.3 Limitations and Challenges......Page 85 2.3.4 Fully Porous SC-SOFCs......Page 87 2.4 Applications of SC-SOFCs Systems......Page 88 References......Page 89 3.1.1 Operating Principle......Page 95 3.1.2 Operating Conditions......Page 97 3.1.3 Geometry and Materials......Page 98 3.1.4 Reforming......Page 99 3.1.5 Balance of Plant......Page 101 3.1.7 State of the Art......Page 103 3.2.1 Approach......Page 104 3.2.2 Technology Optimization......Page 107 3.2.3 Scientific Knowledge......Page 109 3.3.1 Distributed Generation......Page 114 3.3.2 Carbon Capture, Storage, and Transportation......Page 115 3.3.4 Renewable Fuels......Page 117 3.4 Conclusion......Page 118 List of Symbols......Page 119 References......Page 120 4.1 Historical Introduction and Principle......Page 125 4.2 Concepts of Alkaline Fuel-Cell Design Concepts......Page 127 4.2.2 Eloflux Cell Design......Page 128 4.2.4 Bipolar Stack Concept by DLR......Page 129 4.2.5 Hydrocell Concept......Page 130 4.2.6 Ovonics Concept......Page 131 4.2.8 Alkaline Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells Assembled with a Non-Platinum Catalyst......Page 132 4.2.9 PTFE-Bonded Gas Diffusion Electrodes......Page 133 4.2.10.1 Preparation and Electrode Materials......Page 134 4.2.10.2 Dry Preparation of PTFE-Bonded Gas Diffusion Electrodes......Page 136 4.2.11 Reduction of NiO......Page 139 4.3 Electrolytes and Separators......Page 141 4.4.1 Gas Diffusion Electrodes with Raney Nickel Catalysts......Page 142 4.4.2 Gas Diffusion Electrodes with Silver Catalysts......Page 149 4.5 Carbon Dioxide Behavior......Page 151 References......Page 154 5.1 Introduction......Page 159 5.2 Physical Principles of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs)......Page 160 5.3.1 Hydrogen-Fed Micro Fuel Cell......Page 162 5.3.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)......Page 163 5.3.4 Direct Ethanol Fuel Cell (DEFC)......Page 164 5.4.1 Miniaturization......Page 165 5.5 GDL Optimization......Page 166 5.5.1 Flow-Field Design......Page 167 5.5.2 Miniaturized DMFC......Page 169 5.6 Conclusion......Page 170 References......Page 171 6.1 Introduction......Page 175 6.2.1 Electrode Materials......Page 177 6.2.3 Configurations and Design......Page 179 6.2.4.2 Electrochemical Measurements......Page 180 6.2.4.3 Reporting Performance......Page 184 6.3.1 Anode Reactions......Page 185 6.3.1.2 Biocatalysis......Page 186 6.3.1.3 Electron-Transfer Mechanisms......Page 187 6.3.2 Cathode Reactions......Page 188 6.3.2.2 Electron-Transfer Mechanisms......Page 189 6.3.3 Pure Cultures and Mixed Microbial Communities......Page 190 6.3.5 Biological Limitations......Page 191 6.4.1.1 Wastewater Treatment......Page 192 6.4.1.3 Electro-Assisted Anaerobic Digestion......Page 196 6.4.2.1 Desalination......Page 197 6.4.2.3 Organic Alcohols and Acids......Page 198 6.4.3.2 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation......Page 199 6.4.3.4 Biosensors and Environmental Monitoring......Page 200 Acknowledgments......Page 201 References......Page 202 7.2 Heat and Mass Transfer in Micro-Reactors......Page 213 7.3 Specific Features Required from Catalyst Formulations for Microchannel Plate Heat-Exchanger Reactors......Page 216 7.4 Heat Management of Microchannel Plate Heat-Exchanger Reactors......Page 218 7.4.1 Reforming......Page 219 7.4.2 Water Gas Shift Reaction......Page 223 7.4.3 Preferential Oxidation of Carbon Monoxide......Page 225 7.4.4 Selective Methanation of Carbon Monoxide......Page 228 7.5 Examples of Complete Microchannel Fuel Processors......Page 229 7.6.1 Choice of Construction Material......Page 234 7.6.2 Micromachining Techniques......Page 235 7.6.3 Sealing Techniques......Page 237 7.6.5 Catalyst Coating Techniques......Page 238 References......Page 240 8.1 Introduction......Page 247 8.2 Principles......Page 248 8.3 History......Page 250 8.4 Thermodynamics......Page 251 8.5.1 Electrodes for Alkaline Electrolytes......Page 254 8.5.1.2 Alkaline Electrolysis......Page 255 8.5.1.3 Alkaline URFCs......Page 256 8.5.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM)......Page 257 8.5.2.1 PEM Electrolyzers......Page 258 8.5.2.3 PEM URFC......Page 259 8.6 Solid Oxide Electrolyte (SOE)......Page 261 8.7 System Design and Components......Page 262 8.8 Applications and Systems......Page 264 8.8.1 Stationary Systems for Seasonal Energy Storage......Page 265 8.8.2 RFC Systems for Aviation Applications......Page 267 8.9 Conclusion and Prospects......Page 268 References......Page 269 Part II Materials and Production Processes......Page 275 9.1 Introduction......Page 277 9.2.1.1 1995–1998......Page 278 9.2.1.2 1998–2002......Page 280 9.2.1.3 2002–2005......Page 282 9.2.2.1 2000–2006......Page 287 9.2.2.2 2006–2010......Page 294 9.2.3 Advances in Testing of SOFCs......Page 296 9.2.3.1 Testing Housing......Page 297 9.2.3.3 SOFC Testing Procedure......Page 298 References......Page 300 10.2 SOFC and Electrochemical Fundamentals......Page 303 10.3.1 Methods for Coating Electrode Materials......Page 304 10.4 Electrode Materials......Page 306 10.4.1 Anode Materials......Page 308 10.5.1 Motivation for Infiltration......Page 309 10.5.2 Infiltration Applications......Page 310 10.5.2.1 Anodes Produced by Infiltration......Page 312 10.5.2.2 Cathodes Produced by Infiltration......Page 318 10.6 Conclusion......Page 323 References......Page 325 11.1.1 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs)......Page 329 11.1.2 Functional Requirements for pSOFC Seals......Page 332 11.2 Sealing Techniques......Page 334 11.2.1 Rigid Bonded Seals......Page 336 11.2.1.1 Glass and Glass–Ceramic Sealants......Page 337 11.2.1.2 Ceramic Seals......Page 346 11.2.2 Compressive Seals......Page 347 11.2.2.2 Mica-Based Seals......Page 348 11.2.2.3 Hybrid Mica Seals......Page 349 11.2.3 Bonded Compliant Seals......Page 351 11.2.3.1 Brazing......Page 352 11.2.3.2 Bonded Compliant Seal Concept......Page 355 11.3 Conclusion......Page 356 References......Page 357 12.1 Introduction......Page 363 12.2.2 Acidity and Protolytic Equilibria......Page 365 12.2.3 Composition Specifications and Condensation Equilibria......Page 366 12.3.1 Number of Independent Variables, Gibb’s Phase Rule......Page 367 12.3.2 Evaluated Literature Data for the Vapor Pressure of Phosphoric Acid in the Temperature Range between 25 and 170oC......Page 368 12.4.2 Evaluated Literature Data for the (Proton) Conductivity of (Aqueous) Phosphoric Acid in the Temperature Range Between 0 and 170oC......Page 372 12.4.3 Non-Arrhenius Behavior for the Ionic Transport......Page 374 12.4.4 Enthalpy of Activation for the Ionic Transport......Page 378 12.4.5 Evaluated Data for the Dynamic Viscosity of Aqueous Phosphoric in the Temperature Range from 23 to 170oC......Page 380 12.5 Equilibria between the Polyphosphoric Acid Species and ‘‘Composition’’ of Concentrated Phosphoric Acid......Page 381 12.5.1 Evaluated Literature Data for the Polyphosphoric Acid Equilibria......Page 382 12.6 Conclusion......Page 384 References......Page 385 13.1 Introduction......Page 389 13.2.1 Bare Metallic Bipolar Plates......Page 391 13.2.2 Light Alloys......Page 394 13.2.3 Coated Stainless-Steel Bipolar Plates......Page 396 13.3 Discussion and Perspective......Page 398 13.3.1 Substrate Selection......Page 399 13.3.2 Coatings and Surface Modification......Page 400 References......Page 402 14.1 Introduction......Page 407 14.2 The Fuel Cell and Its System......Page 408 14.3 Triple Phase Boundary......Page 410 14.4 Electrodes to Oxidize Hydrogen......Page 412 14.5 Membranes to Transport Ions......Page 416 14.6 Electrocatalysts to Reduce Oxygen......Page 421 14.7 Catalyst Supports to Conduct Electrons......Page 425 14.8 Future Directions......Page 430 References......Page 431 15.1 Introduction......Page 435 15.2 Electrocatalysis in Fuel Cells......Page 436 15.2.1 Oxygen Reduction in PEMFCs......Page 438 15.2.1.1 Platinum-Based Catalysts......Page 439 15.2.1.4 Metal/N/C Catalysts......Page 443 15.2.2.1 Direct Fuel Cells......Page 445 15.2.3 Hydrogen Oxidation and CO Poisoning......Page 446 15.2.4 Catalysis in Direct Fuel Cells......Page 448 15.3 Electrocatalyst Degradation......Page 449 15.4 Novel Support Materials......Page 450 15.5 Catalyst Development, Characterization, and In Situ Studies in Fuel Cells......Page 451 15.6 Catalysis in Hydrogen Production for Fuel Cells......Page 452 15.6.1.1 Introduction......Page 453 15.6.1.2 Catalytic Steam Reforming (SR)......Page 454 15.6.1.3 Catalytic Partial Oxidation (CPO)......Page 455 15.6.1.4 Autothermal Reforming (ATR)......Page 456 15.6.2 Carbon Monoxide Removal......Page 457 15.6.3 Catalysis in the Production of Hydrogen from Biomass......Page 458 References......Page 459 Part III Analytics and Diagnostics......Page 467 16.1 Introduction......Page 469 16.2.1 Principle of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy......Page 471 16.2.1.1 Operating Principle of Frequency Response Analyzers......Page 473 16.2.2.1 Evaluation of Data Quality......Page 474 16.2.2.2 Complex Nonlinear Least-Squares (CNLS) Fit......Page 475 16.2.2.3 Distribution Function of Relaxation Times (DRT)......Page 478 16.3 Experimental Examples......Page 480 16.3.1 Process Identification......Page 481 16.3.1.1 Variation of Temperature......Page 482 16.3.1.2 Variation of Anodic Water Partial Pressure......Page 483 16.3.1.3 Variation of Cathodic Oxygen Partial Pressure......Page 484 16.3.1.4 Conclusions......Page 485 16.3.2 Equivalent Circuit Model Definition and Validation......Page 486 16.3.2.1 Cathodic Oxygen Partial Pressure Dependence......Page 488 16.3.2.2 Anodic Water Partial Pressure Dependence......Page 489 16.3.2.3 Thermal Activation......Page 490 16.3.2.4 Conclusions......Page 492 16.4 Conclusion......Page 493 References......Page 494 17.1 Introduction......Page 497 17.1.1 Reasons for Post-Test Analysis......Page 498 17.1.2 Methods of Post-Test Analysis......Page 499 17.2 Stack Dissection......Page 500 17.2.1 Thermography......Page 501 17.2.2 Stack Embedding......Page 502 17.2.3 Photography and Distance Measurements......Page 503 17.2.4 Optical Microscopy......Page 505 17.2.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy-Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) Analysis......Page 510 17.2.7 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)......Page 512 17.2.8 Wet Chemical Analysis......Page 514 17.2.10 Lessons Learned from Post-Test Stack Dissection and Analysis......Page 516 17.3 Conclusion and Outlook......Page 517 Acknowledgments......Page 518 References......Page 519 18.1 Introduction......Page 521 18.2.1 Complementarity of X-Rays and Neutrons......Page 522 18.2.2.2 Synchrotron X-Ray Sources and X-Ray Tubes......Page 524 18.2.2.3 Tomography and Tomographic Reconstruction......Page 525 18.2.2.4 Artifacts......Page 526 18.2.2.5 Image Normalization Procedure......Page 527 18.3.1.1 X-Rays......Page 528 18.3.1.2 Neutron Radiography......Page 532 18.3.2 DMFCs......Page 535 18.3.2.1 CO2 Evolution Visualized by Means of Synchrotron X-Ray Radiography......Page 536 18.3.2.2 Combined Approach of Neutron Radiography and Local Current Density Measurements......Page 537 18.3.3 HT-PEFCs......Page 539 18.4.1 Neutron Tomography......Page 541 18.4.2 Synchrotron X-Ray Tomography......Page 542 18.5 Conclusion......Page 545 References......Page 546 19.1 Introduction......Page 549 19.2 Gravimetric Properties......Page 552 19.3 Caloric Properties......Page 555 19.4 Structural Information: Porosity......Page 558 19.5 Mechanical Properties......Page 559 19.6 Conclusion......Page 563 References......Page 564 20.1 Introduction......Page 571 20.2.1 Reference Electrode......Page 574 20.2.2 Current Density Distribution......Page 576 20.2.3 Cyclic Voltammetry......Page 577 20.3 Dynamic Operation at Standard Conditions......Page 578 20.4.1 Overall Hydrogen Starvation......Page 581 20.4.2 Hydrogen Starvation During Start-up/Shut-down......Page 583 20.4.3 Local Hydrogen Starvation......Page 586 20.4.4 Oxygen Starvation......Page 589 20.5 Mitigation......Page 590 20.5.2 Operation Strategies......Page 591 References......Page 593 Part IV Quality Assurance......Page 599 21.1 Introduction......Page 601 21.2.2.1 Setting the Test Conditions (Test Inputs)......Page 602 21.2.2.2 Measuring the Test Outputs......Page 605 21.2.3.2 Measuring the Test Outputs......Page 606 21.2.3.3 Data Post-Processing......Page 608 21.2.4.1 Setting the Test Conditions (Test Inputs)......Page 609 21.2.4.2 Measuring the Test Outputs......Page 610 21.2.5.1 Setting the Test Conditions (Test Inputs)......Page 611 21.2.5.2 Measuring the Test Outputs......Page 612 21.2.6.2 Measuring the Test Outputs......Page 613 21.2.6.3 Data Post-Processing......Page 614 21.4.1 Analysis of MEA Aging Phenomena......Page 615 21.4.2 Load Cycling......Page 616 21.5 Design of Experiments in the Field of Fuel-Cell Research......Page 620 References......Page 621 22.2 Verification Methods in Fuel-Cell Process Engineering......Page 625 22.2.1 Design of Experiments......Page 626 22.2.1.1 22 Factorial Design......Page 627 22.2.1.2 32 Factorial Design......Page 629 22.2.1.3 23 Factorial Design......Page 632 22.2.1.4 2n-k Fractional Factorial Designs......Page 637 22.2.2 Evaluation of Measurement Uncertainty......Page 638 22.2.2.1 Summary of Procedure to Evaluate and Express Uncertainty......Page 639 22.2.2.2 The Use of the Monte Carlo Method to Evaluate Uncertainty......Page 640 22.2.2.3 Practical Example of the Use of the Monte Carlo Method to Evaluate Uncertainty......Page 641 22.2.3 Determination of Conversion in Reforming Processes......Page 644 22.3.1 Systems Analysis via Statistical Methods......Page 656 22.3.2 Predictive Method to Determine Vapor–Liquid and Liquid–Liquid Equilibria......Page 658 22.3.2.1 Residual Hydrocarbons in the Reformer Product Gas......Page 660 22.3.2.2 Evaporation of Model Fuels......Page 662 22.3.3 Model Evaluation for Nonlinear Systems of Equations......Page 665 22.3.4 Pinch-Point Analysis......Page 667 22.4 Conclusion......Page 669 References......Page 670 Part V Modeling and Simulation......Page 673 23.1 Introduction......Page 675 23.2.1 The Basic Equations......Page 676 23.2.2 Ideal Transport of Feed Molecules......Page 678 23.2.3 Polarization Curve......Page 679 23.2.4 The Critical Current Density......Page 680 23.2.5 The x-Shapes......Page 681 23.2.6 A Model for Cr Poisoning of the SOFC Cathode......Page 682 23.2.7 Optimum Catalyst Loading......Page 685 23.3 Polarization Curve of PEMFCs and HT-PEMFCs......Page 686 23.3.1 Oxygen Transport in the GDL and the Polarization Curve......Page 687 23.3.2 Low-Current Regime......Page 688 23.3.3 High-Current Regime......Page 689 23.3.4 One-Dimensional Cell Polarization Curve......Page 690 23.3.5 Oxygen Consumption in the Channel and the Quasi-Two-Dimensional Polarization Curve......Page 691 List of Symbols......Page 693 References......Page 695 24 Stochastic Modeling of Fuel-Cell Components......Page 697 24.1 Multi-Layer Model for Paper-Type GDLs......Page 698 24.1.1 Modeling of Fibers......Page 699 24.1.2 Modeling of Binder......Page 700 24.1.3 Fitting of Model Parameters......Page 702 24.1.4 Further Results......Page 703 24.2 Time-Series Model for Non-Woven GDLs......Page 704 24.3 Stochastic Network Model for the Pore Phase......Page 705 24.3.1.1 Detection of Pores......Page 706 24.3.1.2 Modification of Pore Phase Graph......Page 707 24.3.2.2 Construction and Fitting of Point Process Model......Page 708 24.3.3 Validation of Vertex Model......Page 712 24.3.4.1 Moving-Average Model for Dependent Marking......Page 713 24.3.4.2 Degrees of Vertices......Page 715 24.3.5 Stochastic Modeling of Edges......Page 716 24.3.5.1 MCMC Simulation for Edge Rearrangement......Page 717 24.4.1 Classical Random Graph Models......Page 718 24.4.2 Transport Simulations along Edges of Graphs......Page 719 24.5.1 Tortuosity......Page 720 24.5.2 Pore Size Distributions......Page 722 24.5.3 Connectivity......Page 723 24.5.4 Validation of Multi-Layer Model......Page 724 24.6 Conclusion......Page 726 References......Page 727 25.1 Introduction......Page 731 25.2 High-Performance Computing for Fuel Cells......Page 733 25.3 HPC-Based CFD Modeling for Fuel-Cell Systems......Page 739 25.3.1 Principles of Computational Fluid Dynamics......Page 740 25.3.2.1 Turbulence......Page 743 25.3.2.3 Mixtures and Reactions......Page 745 25.3.2.4 Multiphase Flows......Page 747 25.3.2.5 Porous Media......Page 748 25.3.3 CFD Modeling of the Core Components of an HT-PEFC Auxiliary Power Unit......Page 749 25.4 CFD-Based Design......Page 756 25.5 Conclusion and Outlook......Page 758 References......Page 759 26.1 Introduction......Page 761 26.2 Governing Equations of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells......Page 763 26.2.1 Mass Conservation......Page 764 26.2.2 Momentum Conservation......Page 766 26.2.3 Energy Conservation......Page 767 26.2.4 Electrochemistry......Page 768 26.2.4.1 Continuum-Level Electrochemistry Approach......Page 769 26.2.4.2 Mesoscale Electrochemistry Approach......Page 770 26.2.5 Chemical Reactions......Page 773 26.3.1 System-Level Modeling......Page 775 26.3.2 Stack-Level Modeling......Page 778 26.3.3 Cell-Level Modeling......Page 783 26.4 Mesoscale SOFC Modeling......Page 786 26.6 Conclusion......Page 789 References......Page 790 27.1 Introduction......Page 795 27.2 Chronological Overview of Numerically Performed Thermomechanical Analyses in SOFCs......Page 796 27.3.1 Cell, Sealant, and Wire Mesh Components......Page 801 27.3.2 Metallic Components......Page 804 27.4 Effect of Geometric Design on the Stress Distribution in SOFCs......Page 806 27.4.1 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Analysis......Page 807 27.4.2 Thermomechanically Induced Stress Analysis......Page 810 27.4.2.2 Thermomechanically Induced Stress Within the Metal Components......Page 811 27.5 Conclusion......Page 816 References......Page 817 28.1 Introduction......Page 819 28.2.1 General Assumptions......Page 822 28.2.2 Anode Gas Channels......Page 823 28.2.3 Cathode Gas Channels......Page 826 28.2.4 Solid Phase......Page 827 28.2.5 Potential Field Model......Page 828 28.3 Electrode Models......Page 832 28.3.1 Spatially Lumped Models......Page 834 28.3.2 Thin-Film Models......Page 836 28.3.3 Agglomerate Models......Page 837 28.3.4 Volume-Averaged Models......Page 838 28.4 Conclusion......Page 839 List of Symbols......Page 840 References......Page 842 29.1 Introduction......Page 847 29.2 Cell-Level Modeling......Page 849 29.3 Stack-Level Modeling......Page 853 29.4 Phosphoric Acid as Electrolyte......Page 855 29.5 Basic Modeling of the Polarization Curve......Page 857 29.5.1 Activation Overpotential......Page 858 29.5.2 Ohmic Resistance......Page 859 29.5.3 Mass Transport......Page 861 29.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives......Page 862 References......Page 863 30.1 Introduction......Page 867 30.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane......Page 870 30.3 Catalyst Layers......Page 873 30.4 Gas Diffusion Layers and Microporous Layers......Page 878 30.5 Gas Flow Channels......Page 887 30.6 Gas Diffusion Layer-Gas Flow Channel Interface......Page 892 30.7 Bipolar Plates......Page 896 30.9 Model Validation......Page 897 30.10 Conclusion......Page 899 List of Symbols......Page 900 References......Page 902 31.1 Introduction......Page 907 31.2 Cell-Level Modeling and Simulation......Page 909 31.2.1 Dimensionality......Page 910 31.2.2 Transient Operation......Page 912 31.2.3 Nonisothermal Modeling......Page 916 31.2.4 Two-Phase Flow......Page 919 31.2.5 Cold Start Operation......Page 921 31.2.6 Large-Scale Fuel-Cell Simulation......Page 926 31.2.7 Flow Maldistribution......Page 928 31.2.7.1 Single-Phase Flow......Page 929 31.2.7.2 Two-Phase Flow......Page 930 31.2.8 Model Validation......Page 931 31.3.1 Why Is Stack-Level Modeling Needed?......Page 934 31.3.2 Modeling and Simulation of Fuel-Cell Stacks......Page 935 31.3.3 Model Validation......Page 938 31.4 Conclusion......Page 939 List of Symbols......Page 940 References......Page 941 Part VI Balance of Plant Design and Components......Page 945 32.1 Introduction......Page 947 32.2.1 General Considerations......Page 948 32.2.2 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 951 32.2.3.1 System Set-Up......Page 954 32.2.3.2 Gibbs Energy Function......Page 955 32.2.3.3 Pinch Point Diagram......Page 956 32.2.3.4 Exergy Analysis......Page 958 32.2.3.5 Process Optimization......Page 960 32.2.4 Process Analysis and Design......Page 968 32.3 Detailed Engineering......Page 973 32.3.1 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram......Page 976 32.3.2 FMEA......Page 978 32.3.3 Selection of Peripheral Components......Page 981 32.3.4 Drawings and Piping......Page 982 32.5 Construction......Page 984 32.6 Conclusion......Page 985 Subscripts and Superscripts......Page 986 References......Page 987 33.1 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells for Power Generation......Page 991 33.2.1 General......Page 993 33.2.2 Type of SOFC Power System......Page 996 33.2.3 SOFC Power System Design......Page 997 33.3.1.1 SOFC Stack......Page 998 33.3.1.2 Other Power Generating Equipment......Page 1005 33.3.2 Fuel Processing Subsystem......Page 1007 33.3.3 Fuel, Oxidant, and Water Delivery Subsystem......Page 1010 33.3.4 Thermal Management Subsystem......Page 1011 33.3.5 Power Conditioning Subsystem......Page 1015 33.3.6 Control Subsystem......Page 1017 33.4.1 Portable Systems......Page 1019 33.4.2.1 SOFC-Based APUs for Automobiles and Trucks......Page 1021 33.4.2.2 SOFC-Based APUs for Aircraft......Page 1022 33.4.3.1 Stationary Simple Cycle SOFC Systems......Page 1025 33.4.3.2 SOFC/GT Hybrid Systems......Page 1026 33.4.3.3 Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell (IGFC) Systems......Page 1029 References......Page 1034 34.2.1 Crude Oil......Page 1039 34.2.2 Routes for Inserting Sulfur into the Molecules in Crude Oil......Page 1040 34.2.3 Different Chemical Classes of Sulfur-Containing Substances in Crude Oil......Page 1041 34.2.4 Catalyst Poisoning by Sulfur-Containing Substances in Crude Oil Fractions......Page 1043 34.3 Desulfurization in the Gas Phase......Page 1044 34.3.2 Adsorption......Page 1045 34.3.3.1 H2S Removal......Page 1046 34.3.3.3 SO2 Removal......Page 1048 34.3.4 Hydrofining......Page 1049 34.4.1 Hydrodesulfurization with Presaturator......Page 1050 34.4.2 Adsorption......Page 1052 34.4.3 Ionic Liquids......Page 1054 34.4.4.2 Photo-oxidation......Page 1056 34.4.4.4 Biological Processes......Page 1057 34.4.5 Desulfurization with Overcritical Fluids......Page 1058 34.4.6 Distillation......Page 1059 34.4.7.2 Processes with Nonporous Membranes......Page 1060 34.5 Application in Fuel-Cell Systems......Page 1062 34.6 Conclusion......Page 1066 References......Page 1067 35.2.1 Driving Resistance......Page 1073 35.2.2 Energy Conversion and Driving Cycles......Page 1074 35.3.1 Overview of Propulsion Systems......Page 1077 35.3.2 Powertrain Comparison......Page 1083 35.3.3.2 Hybrid Electric Fuel Cell Vehicles......Page 1086 35.3.3.3 Triple-Hybrid Fuel Cell Vehicles......Page 1088 35.4.1 Hydrogen Storage......Page 1089 35.4.2 Fuel Cell Systems for Automotive Applications......Page 1091 35.4.3 Electrical Storage......Page 1093 35.4.4 Electric Machines......Page 1095 35.4.5 Cost Comparison of Vehicle Drivetrains......Page 1098 35.5 Conclusion......Page 1100 References......Page 1101 36.1 Introduction......Page 1103 36.2.1 Reasons for Hybridizing a Fuel Cell......Page 1104 36.2.2.1 Series and Parallel Hybrids......Page 1105 36.2.2.2 Active and Passive Hybrids......Page 1106 36.3 Components of a Fuel-Cell Hybrid......Page 1109 36.3.2 Energy Storage......Page 1110 36.3.3 Power Electronics......Page 1111 36.3.4 Control Unit......Page 1112 36.4.2 Basic Types......Page 1113 36.4.3 Possible Concepts......Page 1115 36.5.1 Fuel-Cell Powertrains......Page 1116 36.5.1.1 Passenger Cars......Page 1117 36.5.2 Light Traction Applications......Page 1120 36.5.2.2 Commercial Vehicles......Page 1121 36.5.2.3 Forklift Trucks......Page 1122 36.6 Systems Analysis......Page 1124 References......Page 1126 Part VII Systems Verification and Market Introduction......Page 1133 37.2 Premium Power Market Overview......Page 1135 37.3.1 Homes......Page 1137 37.3.2 Off-Grid Base Stations......Page 1139 37.4.1 Remote Monitoring/Remote Sensing......Page 1141 37.4.2.1 Soldier Power......Page 1143 37.4.3 Portable Generators –Military......Page 1144 References......Page 1145 38.2 Why Demonstration?......Page 1147 38.3 Transportation Demonstrations......Page 1148 38.3.1.1 Clean Energy Partnership......Page 1150 38.3.1.2 Activities in North Rhine-Westphalia......Page 1152 38.3.1.4 Additional Resources......Page 1153 38.3.2.1 Japan Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Demonstration Project (JHFC)......Page 1154 38.3.2.4 Additional Resources......Page 1157 38.3.3.1 The DOE Technology Validation Program......Page 1158 38.3.3.2 State Activities......Page 1160 38.3.4 European Union......Page 1161 38.3.4.1 Fuel-Cell Bus Projects......Page 1162 38.3.4.2 H2moves Scandinavia......Page 1163 38.3.5 Canada......Page 1164 38.3.7 China......Page 1165 38.3.8 Auto Maker Demonstration Programs......Page 1166 38.4 Stationary Power and Early Market Applications......Page 1167 38.4.1 Japan......Page 1168 38.4.1.2 Additional Resource......Page 1169 38.4.3 Germany......Page 1170 38.4.4 European Union......Page 1171 38.4.5 United States......Page 1172 38.4.6 South Korea......Page 1173 References......Page 1174 Further Reading......Page 1178 Part VIII Knowledge Distribution and Public Awareness......Page 1179 39.1 Introduction......Page 1181 39.2 The IEA HIA Strategic Framework: Overview......Page 1182 39.2.1 Theme 1: Collaborative RD&D......Page 1183 39.2.1.1 Production Portfolio......Page 1185 39.2.1.2 Storage Portfolio......Page 1186 39.2.1.3 Integrated Systems Portfolio......Page 1187 39.2.1.4 Integration in Existing Infrastructure Portfolio......Page 1188 39.2.2.1 Technical Portfolio......Page 1189 39.2.3.1 Information Dissemination Portfolio......Page 1190 39.2.3.2 Safety Portfolio......Page 1191 39.2.3.3 Outreach Portfolio......Page 1192 39.4 IEA HIA: the Past as Prolog......Page 1194 39.5 The 2009–2015 IEA HIA Work Program Timeline......Page 1201 39.6 Conclusion and Final Remarks......Page 1205 Further Reading......Page 1207 40.2 International Level......Page 1209 40.2.1 International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy......Page 1210 40.2.2 International Energy Agency......Page 1211 40.2.2.1 Implementing Agreement on Advanced Fuel Cells......Page 1212 40.2.2.2 Hydrogen Implementing Agreement......Page 1213 40.3.1 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking......Page 1215 40.3.1.1 FCH JU Members......Page 1217 40.3.1.2 Governance Structure......Page 1218 40.3.2 European Hydrogen Association......Page 1221 40.4.1 US Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association......Page 1224 40.4.1.2 Resources......Page 1225 40.4.2 Canadian Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association......Page 1226 40.4.3 German National Organization for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology......Page 1228 40.5.1 European Regions and Municipalities Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells......Page 1229 40.5.2 Hydrogen and Fuel-Cell Activities in Germany’s Federal States......Page 1230 40.6.1 The California Fuel Cell Partnership......Page 1232 40.6.3 Initiative Brennstoffzelle......Page 1234 40.7 Conclusion......Page 1236 References......Page 1237 41.1 Introduction......Page 1239 41.2 Information for Interested Laypeople......Page 1240 41.3 Education for School Students and University Students......Page 1241 41.4 Electrolyzers and Fuel Cells in Education and Training......Page 1243 41.5 Training and Qualification for Trade and Industry......Page 1244 41.6 Education and Training in the Scientific Arena......Page 1246 41.7 Clarification Assistance in the Political Arena......Page 1247 41.8 Analysis of Public Awareness......Page 1248 References......Page 1249 Index......Page 1251