Microbiomes and the Global Climate Change

This book covers the contemporary environmental issues faced by life on the planet and the role planetary microbiomes play in such issues. Providing insights on the net favorable and adverse effect of microbial processes, this volume covers both the spontaneous and anthropocentric events that impact climate change and life on the planet. The book describes the ecological significance of microbiomes associated with the kingdoms Plantae and Animalia with respect to climate change, natural and anthropogenic causes of climate change, microbial interactions in nature, planetary microbiomes and food security, climate change in relation to disease epidemiology and human health and engineering microorganisms to mitigate the consequences of climate change. The individual chapters in the intended book provide both theoretical and practical exposure to the current issues and future challenges of climate change in relation to the microbiomes. This collection should serve as ready reference to the researchers working in the area to reshape their future research in addressing the challenges of global climate change. Preface Contents Editors and Contributors Part I: Climate Change and Microbial Ecology 1: Microbes and Climate: A Tangled Relation 1.1 Brief History and Introduction of Microbial Evolution and Climate Change 1.2 Climatic Change and Microorganisms 1.3 Impact of Climate Change on Microbial Community 1.3.1 Anthropogenic Factors 1.3.1.1 Use of Antibiotics and Antifungal Agents 1.3.1.2 Use of Agrochemicals 1.3.1.3 Disposing Untreated Waste by Scientific Laboratories and Industries 1.4 Microorganisms, Agriculture, and Global Warming 1.5 Conclusion References 2: Carbon Sequestration in Aquatic System Using Microbial Pump 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Understanding DOC Fractions 2.3 Classical Ocean Carbon Pumps 2.3.1 Solubility Pump 2.3.2 Biological Carbon Pump 2.3.3 Carbonate Pump 2.4 Microbial Carbon Pump (MCP) 2.5 Disturbances and Effects on Microbial Carbon Pump 2.5.1 Warming of Ocean Waters 2.5.2 Ocean Stratification and Nutrient Supply 2.5.3 Exposure to UV Radiation 2.5.4 Ocean Acidification 2.5.5 Thermohaline Circulation 2.6 Conclusion References 3: Climate Change Extenuation by Greenhouse Gas Quenching Microflora 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Soil Microbes and Climate Change 3.3 Microbes and Global Warming 3.4 Microbes as Carbon Sink 3.5 Combating Global Warming Through Biofuels 3.6 Volatile Organic Carbon Mitigation and Methylotrophs 3.7 Carbon Cycling and Climate Change 3.8 Methylotrophs Mitigating Methane 3.9 Methylotrophs Mitigating Methane in Paddy Fields 3.10 Conclusions References 4: Role of Methanotrophs in Mitigating Global Warming 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Methane and its Sources 4.2.1 Paddy Fields 4.2.2 Methane Hydrates 4.2.3 Coal Mines 4.3 Methanotrophs Based Mitigation of Methane 4.3.1 Methanotrophs 4.3.2 Biodiversity of Methanotrophs 4.3.3 Catalytic Properties of MMOs 4.4 Role of Methanotrophs in Mitigating Methane Emission 4.4.1 Mitigation of Methane Emissions from Landfills 4.4.2 Mitigation of Methane Emissions from Coal Mines 4.5 Engineered Strategies for Methane Removal 4.6 Conclusions References 5: Paradigm Ecological Shift and Succession in Microbiomes: A Climatic Advent 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Responses of Soil Microbial Community Under Changing Multiple Climatic Factors 5.3 Development and Evolution of Microbial Ecosystems and Its Gradual Succession 5.4 Role of Microbes in Global Warming and Recycling the Essential Elements 5.5 Acceleration of the Spatial Turnover of Soil Microbial Communities Under Elevated CO2 5.6 Few Example of Microbial Community Succession Under Changing Environment Stimulated Through Soil Transplant 5.7 Influence of Climate Change in Shifting Plant Diseases from Minor to Major 5.8 Effect of Climate Change on Marine Microbial Succession 5.9 Conclusion References 6: Exploring the Diversity of Marine Microbiome in Response to Changes in the Environment 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Marine Microbiome 6.3 Marine Microorganisms (Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya) and Viruses 6.4 Importance of Marine Microbes 6.4.1 Biogeochemical Cycling of the Nutrients 6.4.2 Degradation of Organic Matters 6.4.3 Source of Novel Bioactive Compounds 6.4.4 Tackling Pollution 6.4.5 Maintenance of Marine Food Chain and Food Web 6.5 Environmental Factors Affecting the Marine Microbiome 6.5.1 Global Climate Change 6.5.2 Environmental Pollution 6.6 Conclusion References 7: Polar Microbes as Climate-Resilient Pathways for Mitigation of Climate Change 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Polar Regions and Climate Change 7.3 Recent Environmental Changes in Polar Regions 7.3.1 Changes in Atmospheric Circulation 7.3.2 Changes in Temperature and Ocean Circulation 7.3.3 Changes in Sea Ice and Ice Sheets 7.3.4 Changes in Microbial Interactions 7.4 Microbial Diversity in Polar Regions 7.4.1 Diatoms 7.4.2 Snow Algae 7.4.3 Cyanobacteria 7.4.4 Other Microbes 7.5 Adaptations in Low Temperatures 7.5.1 Adaptations in Cell Envelope and Cell Membrane 7.5.2 Adaptations in Membrane Pigments 7.5.3 Adaptations in Cell Wall 7.5.4 Antifreeze Proteins 7.5.5 Compatible Solutes 7.5.6 Other Adaptations 7.6 Role of Microbes in Mitigation of Climate Change 7.7 Conclusion References Part II: Climate Change and Pathogens 8: Climate Change and Population Health 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Consequences of Climate change 8.2.1 Exposure to Thermal Extremes and Other Weather Events 8.2.2 Biological Impact of Air Pollution, Pollens, and Spores 8.2.3 Effect Due to Change in Range and Activity of Vectors 8.2.4 Effect of Alteration in Infective Agents 8.2.5 Effect of Alteration in Crop Production 8.2.6 Effect of Extreme Weather Events 8.2.7 Effect of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 8.3 Future Trends 8.4 Strategies to Minimize the Health Risk 8.5 What is Being Done at Country and International Level? References 9: Impact of Climate Change on the Incidence and Transfer of Food- and Water-Borne Diseases 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Climate Change a Global Concern 9.3 Incidence of Diseases in Relation to the Climate Change 9.3.1 Food Handling and Security 9.3.2 Foodborne Diseases 9.3.2.1 Campylobacteriosis 9.3.2.2 Salmonellosis 9.3.2.3 Listeriosis 9.3.2.4 Bacillus cereus 9.3.2.5 Clostridium 9.3.2.6 Staphylococcus 9.3.2.7 Escherichia coli 9.3.3 Waterborne Diseases 9.3.3.1 Vibrio Spp. 9.4 Risk and Mitigation Approach 9.5 Conclusion References 10: Climate Change: Any Dangers from Antimicrobial Resistant Bacteria? 10.1 Pathogens 10.1.1 Pathogen Prevalence 10.1.2 Gene Transfer 10.2 Agriculture 10.2.1 AMA and AMR Pathways in Agriculture 10.2.2 Influence of Climate Change on Agriculture 10.2.3 Possible Changes Induced by Climate Change on AMR in Agriculture 10.3 Water Distribution and Quality 10.3.1 Surface Waters 10.3.2 Water Distribution 10.4 Melting Glaciers and Permafrost Thaws 10.5 Hydrological Changes and Legacy Pollution 10.6 Summary References 11: Phyllosphere Microbiome: Plant Defense Strategies 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Phylloplane 11.3 Phylloplane Microbes or Epiphytes 11.4 Inter-Microbial Interactions 11.5 Antimicrobial Activity of Epiphytes 11.6 Climate Change and Microbial Colonization 11.7 Plant-Microbe Interactions 11.8 Elicitation of Plant Defense Response by Fungal Metabolites and Ergosterol 11.9 Intercellular Fluid Proteins 11.10 Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase (PAL) in Plant Defense 11.11 Tyrosine Ammonia Lyase (TAL) in Plant Defense 11.12 Peroxidases (POX) 11.13 Polyphenol Oxidases (PPO) 11.14 Age Related Resistance (ARR) in Plants 11.15 Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR) in Plants 11.16 Priming and Pathogenesis-Related (PR) Proteins 11.17 Changes Induced in Total Phenols and Flavonoids by Microorganisms 11.18 Conclusion 11.19 Future Prospects References Part III: Climate Change and Agriculture 12: Understanding Methanogens, Methanotrophs, and Methane Emission in Rice Ecosystem 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Methanogens and Methane Production in Rice Field 12.3 Methanotrophs and Methane Oxidation in Rice Soil 12.4 Methane Oxidation in Rice Ecosystem 12.5 Factors Affecting Methane Emission in Rice Ecosystems 12.5.1 Soil Temperature 12.5.2 Soil Organic Matter 12.5.3 Soil Texture 12.5.4 Application of Fertilizers 12.6 Mitigation of Methane Emission from Rice Ecosystem 12.6.1 Irrigation Management 12.6.2 Rice Cultivar 12.6.3 Methane Mitigation Through Azolla 12.6.4 Other Interventions for Methane Mitigation in Rice 12.7 Conclusion References 13: Soil Microflora and its Role in Diminution of Global Climate Change 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Terrestrial Microbiome 13.3 Changes in Climate Affect Soil Microflora 13.3.1 Temperature and Thermal Adaptation on Soil Microbes 13.3.2 Precipitation 13.3.3 Elevation of Carbon Dioxide 13.3.4 Resistance Development in Several Harmful Plant Pathogens 13.4 Effects of Soil Microflora on Climate Change 13.4.1 Carbon Dioxide Emission 13.4.2 Methane Emission 13.4.3 Role of Ruminants, Earthworms and Herbivores 13.5 Agriculture 13.5.1 Methane Emission from Different Agricultural Activities 13.5.2 Fossil Fuel Combustion and Use of Fertilizers 13.5.3 Eutrophication 13.6 Microbial Mitigation of Climate Change 13.6.1 Management of Soil-Borne Plant Pathogens 13.6.1.1 Exploitation of Pseudomonas, Bacillus and Other Rhizobacterial Species 13.6.1.2 Exploitation of Rhizobacteria Against Other Biotic Stresses 13.6.1.3 Induction of Systemic Resistance 13.6.2 Microbial Exploitation for Sustainable Agriculture and Plant Growth Enhancement 13.6.2.1 Development of Biofertilizer or Nitrogen Fixer 13.6.2.2 Phytohormone Synthesis 13.6.3 Bioremediation 13.6.3.1 Microbial Bioremediation: Overview and Types 13.6.3.2 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals 13.6.3.3 Other Scopes and Possibilities: Synthetic Biology Approach 13.7 Conclusion References 14: Role of Microorganisms in Plant Adaptation Towards Climate Change for Sustainable Agriculture 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Adaptation to Stress by Microbes 14.3 Alleviation of Abiotic Stress in Plants by Rhizospheric Microbes 14.4 Symbiotic Fungi for Reduction of Abiotic Stress 14.5 Dual Symbiotic Systems for Alleviating of Abiotic Stress 14.6 Conclusion References 15: Novel Approaches for Genome Editing to Develop Climate Smart Crops 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Basic Genome-Editing Techniques 15.2.1 Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs) 15.2.2 Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases-TALENs 15.2.3 CRISPR/Cas9 System 15.2.4 Editing by Nucleobase Modification (Base Editors) 15.3 Novel Technical Breakthroughs 15.3.1 DNA-Free Genome-Editing System 15.3.2 CRISPR/Cpf1 System 15.4 Outcomes of Genome Editing in Understanding Climate Stress Tolerance 15.5 Conclusions and Future Implications References Part IV: Climate Change and the Environmental Microbiology 16: Role of Soil Microbial Flora in Remediation of Hydrocarbon Stressed Soils 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Anthropogenic Pollution 16.3 Environmental Contaminants and their Fate 16.4 Effects of Xenobiotics on Soil Quality 16.5 Role of Healthy Soil in Climate Change 16.6 Role of Microbial Flora in the Degradation of PAHs 16.6.1 Factors Affecting the Bacterial Degradation of PAHs 16.6.1.1 Abiotic Factors Temperature pH Salinity and Pressure Substrate and Properties Solubility Availability of Nutrients End Products Toxicity and Accumulation 16.6.1.2 Biotic Factors Inoculum Size and Type Electron Acceptors Bioavailability of Pollutants and Biosurfactants 16.7 Genetics of PAHs Metabolism in Aerobic Bacteria 16.8 Kinetics of Bacterial Degradation of PAHs 16.9 Enzymology of PAHs Metabolism in Aerobic Bacteria 16.9.1 Hydroxylation-Activation of PAHs by Dioxygenases to Produce Cis-Dihydrodiols 16.9.2 Rearomatization-Conversion of Cis-Dihydrodiols by Dehydrogenase to Diol Intermediates 16.9.3 Cleavage of Diol Intermediate to Catechols by Ring-Cleaving Dioxygenases 16.10 Conclusion and Future Perspective References 17: Biosurfactant-Producing Bacteria as Potent Scavengers of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 17.2.1 Saturates (Aliphatics) 17.2.2 Aromatics (Ringed Hydrocarbons) 17.2.3 Resins 17.2.4 Asphaltenes 17.3 Impact of Petroleum Hydrocarbons on Environment 17.3.1 Impacts on Humans 17.3.2 Impact on Microorganisms 17.4 Biosurfactants and their Properties 17.4.1 Classification and Properties of Biosurfactants 17.4.1.1 Glycolipids 17.4.1.2 Rhamnolipids 17.4.1.3 Sophorolipids 17.4.1.4 Trehalose Lipids 17.4.1.5 Lipoproteins and Lipopeptides 17.4.1.6 Fatty Acids and Phospholipids 17.4.1.7 Polymeric Biosurfactants 17.4.1.8 Particulate Biosurfactants 17.5 Biodegradation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons by Biosurfactant-Producing Bacteria in the Contaminated Environment 17.6 Mechanism of Hydrocarbon Biodegradation 17.7 Factors Affecting the Biodegradation of Hydrocarbon 17.7.1 Oxygen (O2) 17.7.2 Soil Properties and Nutrient Availability 17.7.3 Water Content and Temperature 17.7.4 Hydrocarbon Bioavailability 17.7.5 Concentration of Petroleum Hydrocarbon 17.8 Conclusion and Future Outlook References 18: Potent Biotechnological Applications of Psychrozymes 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Habitats of Psychrophilic Microorganisms 18.3 Cold-Loving Enzymes 18.3.1 Food Sector 18.3.2 Brewage Sector 18.3.3 Pharmaceutical Sector 18.3.4 Leather and Textile Sectors 18.3.5 Detergent Sector 18.3.6 Biotechnology 18.3.7 Waste Management 18.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 19: Role of Green Nanotechnology in Alleviating Climate Change 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Role of Nanotechnology 19.3 Green Nanotechnology 19.4 Role of Microbiome in Nanotechnology 19.5 Nanobioremediation 19.6 Conclusion References