Optics for Engineers: Second Edition

This textbook provides an accessible introduction to the fundamentals of geometric and physical optics as they relate to practical problems encountered by engineers and researchers in designing and analyzing optical systems. In this updated edition, the author focuses on topics that are critical to understanding how the basic principles of optics affect design decisions. In addition to information on breadboarding experiments and prototypes, the new edition also expands its coverage of diffraction and includes numerous complete examples, and practical reminders Professor Charles A. DiMarzio is an associate professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, and the Department of Bioengineering at Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. He spent 14 years at Raytheon Company’s Electro-Optics Systems Laboratory in coherent laser radar for air safety and meteorology. Among other projects there, he worked on an airborne laser radar, flown on the Galileo-II, to monitor airflow related to severe storms, pollution, and wind energy, and another laser radar to characterize the wake vortices of landing aircraft. His current research in biomedical optics focuses on microscopy including coherent imaging, structured illumination, and multi-modal imaging. He is also a founding member of Gordon-CenSSIS – the Gordon Center for Subsurface Sensing and Imaging Systems. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Contents List of Figures List of Tables Acknowledgments Preface Author 1. Introduction 1.1. Why Optics? 1.2. History 1.2.1. Earliest Years 1.2.2. Al Hazan 1.2.3. 1600–1800 1.2.4. 1800–1900 1.2.5. Quantum Mechanics and Einstein’s Miraculous Year 1.2.6. Middle 1900s 1.2.7. The Laser Arrives 1.2.8. The Space Decade 1.2.9. The Late 1900s and Beyond 1.3. Optical Engineering 1.4. Electromagnetics Background 1.4.1. Maxwell’s Equations 1.4.2. Wave Equation 1.4.3. Vector and Scalar Waves 1.4.4. Impedance, Poynting Vector, and Irradiance 1.4.5. Wave Notation Conventions 1.4.6. Summary of Electromagnetics 1.5. Wavelength, Frequency, Power, and Photons 1.5.1. Wavelength, Wavenumber, Frequency, and Period 1.5.2. Field Strength, Irradiance, and Power 1.5.3. Energy and Photons 1.6. Energy Levels and Transitions 1.7. Macroscopic Effects 1.8. Basic Concepts of Imaging 1.8.1. Eikonal Equation and Optical Path Length 1.8.2. Fermat’s Principle 1.8.3. Summary 1.9. Overview of the Book 2. Basic Geometric Optics 2.1. Snell’s Law 2.2. Imaging with a Single Interface 2.3. Reflection 2.3.1. Planar Surface 2.3.2. Curved Surface 2.4. Refraction 2.4.1. Planar Surface 2.4.2. Curved Surface 2.5. Simple Lens 2.5.1. Thin Lens 2.6. Prisms 2.7. Reflective Systems 3. Matrix Optics 3.1. Matrix Optics Concepts 3.1.1. Basic Matrices 3.1.2. Cascading Matrices 3.1.3. Summary of Matrix Optics Concepts 3.2. Interpreting the Results 3.2.1. Principal Planes 3.2.2. Imaging 3.2.3. Summary of Principal Planes and Interpretation 3.3. The Thick Lens Again 3.3.1. Summary of the Thick Lens 3.4. Compound Lenses 3.4.1. Two Thin Lenses 3.4.2. 2× Magnifier with Compound Lens 3.4.3. Global Coordinates 3.4.4. Telescopes 4. Stops, Pupils, and Windows 4.1. Aperture Stop 4.1.1. Solid Angle and Numerical Aperture 4.1.2. f-Number 4.2. Field Stop 4.2.1. Exit Window 4.2.2. Example: Camera 4.3. Locating and Identifying Pupils and Windows 4.3.1. Object-Space Description 4.3.2. Image-Space Description 4.3.3. Finding the Pupil and Aperture Stop 4.3.4. Finding the Windows 4.4. Typical Optical Instruments 4.4.1. Telescope 4.4.2. Scanning 4.4.3. Magnifiers and Microscopes 5. Aberrations 5.1. Exact Ray Tracing 5.1.1. Ray Tracing Computation 5.1.2. Aberrations in Refraction 5.2. Ellipsoidal Mirror 5.2.1. Aberrations and Field of View 5.2.2. Design Aberrations 5.2.3. Aberrations and Aperture 5.3. Seidel Aberrations and OPL 5.3.1. Spherical Aberration 5.3.2. Distortion 5.3.3. Coma 5.3.4. Field Curvature and Astigmatism 5.4. Spherical Aberration for a Thin Lens 5.4.1. Coddington Factors 5.4.2. Analysis 5.5. Chromatic Aberration 5.6. Design Issues 5.7. Lens Design 6. Polarized Light 6.1. Fundamentals of Polarized Light 6.1.1. Light as a Transverse Wave 6.1.2. Linear Polarization 6.1.3. Circular Polarization 6.1.4. Note about Random Polarization 6.2. Behavior of Polarizing Devices 6.2.1. Linear Polarizer 6.2.2. Waveplate 6.2.3. Rotator 6.3. Interaction with Materials 6.4. Fresnel Reflection and Transmission 6.4.1. Snell’s Law 6.4.2. Reflection and Transmission 6.4.3. Power 6.4.4. Total Internal Reflection 6.4.5. Transmission through a Beamsplitter or Window 6.4.6. Complex Index of Refraction 6.5. Physics of Polarizing Devices 6.5.1. Polarizers 6.5.2. Birefringence 6.5.3. Polarization Rotator 6.6. Jones Vectors and Matrices 6.6.1. Basic Polarizing Devices 6.6.2. Coordinate Transforms 6.6.3. Mirrors and Reflection 6.6.4. Matrix Properties 6.6.5. Applications 6.7. Partial Polarization 6.7.1. Coherency Matrices 6.7.2. Stokes Vectors and Mueller Matrices 6.7.3. Mueller Matrices 6.7.4. Poincar ́e Sphere 7. Interference 7.1. Mach–Zehnder Interferometer 7.1.1. Basic Principles 7.1.2. Straight-Line Layout 7.1.3. Viewing an Extended Source 7.1.4. Viewing a Point Source: Alignment Issues 7.1.5. Balanced Mixing 7.2. Doppler Laser Radar 7.2.1. Basics 7.2.2. Mixing Efficiency 7.2.3. Doppler Frequency 7.2.4. Range Resolution 7.3. Resolving Ambiguities 7.3.1. Phase-Shifting Interferometry 7.3.2. Offset Reference Frequency 7.3.3. Optical Quadrature 7.3.4. Other Imaging Approaches 7.3.5. Comparison 7.3.6. Periodicity Issues 7.4. Michelson Interferometer 7.4.1. Basics 7.4.2. Compensator Plate 7.4.3. Application: Optical Testing 7.5. Fabry–Perot Interferometer 7.5.1. Basics 7.5.2. Fabry–Perot Ètalon 7.5.3. Laser Cavity as a Fabry–Perot Interferometer 7.5.4. Frequency Modulation 7.5.5. Ètalon for Single-Longitudinal Mode Operation 7.6. Beamsplitter 7.7. Thin Films 7.7.1. High-Reflectance Stack 7.7.2. Antireflection Coatings 8. Diffraction 8.1. Physics of Diffraction 8.2. The Angular Spectrum 8.3. Fresnel–Kirchhoff Integral 8.3.1. Summary of the Fresnel–Kirchhoff Integral 8.4. Paraxial Approximation 8.4.1. Coordinate Definitions and Approximations 8.4.2. Computing the Field 8.4.3. Fresnel Radius and the Far Field 8.4.4. Fraunhofer Lens 8.4.5. Summary of Paraxial Approximation 8.5. Fraunhofer Diffraction Equations 8.5.1. Spatial Frequency 8.5.2. Angle and Spatial Frequency 8.6. Some Useful Fraunhofer Patterns 8.6.1. Square or Rectangular Aperture 8.6.2. Circular Aperture 8.6.3. Gaussian Beam 8.6.4. Gaussian Beam in an Aperture 8.6.5. Depth of Field: Almost-Fraunhofer Diffraction 8.6.6. Summary of Special Cases 8.7. Resolution of an Imaging System 8.7.1. Definitions 8.7.2. View from the Pupil Plane 8.7.3. Rayleigh Criterion 8.7.4. Alternative Definitions 8.7.5. Diffraction Examples 8.7.6. Superresolution 8.7.7. Summary of Resolution 8.8. Diffraction Grating 8.8.1. Grating Equation 8.8.2. Aliasing 8.8.3. Fourier Analysis 8.8.4. Example: Laser Beam and Grating Spectrometer 8.8.5. Blaze Angle 8.8.6. Littrow Grating 8.8.7. Monochromators and Spectrometers Again 8.8.8. Bragg Cell 8.9. Fresnel Diffraction 8.9.1. Fresnel Cosine and Sine Integrals 8.9.2. Cornu Spiral and Diffraction at Edges 8.9.3. Fresnel Diffraction as Convolution 8.9.4. Fresnel Zone Plate and Lens 8.9.5. Summary of Fresnel Diffraction 9. Gaussian Beams 9.1. Equations for Gaussian Beams 9.1.1. Derivation 9.1.2. Gaussian Beam Characteristics 9.1.3. Summary of Gaussian Beam Equations 9.2. Gaussian Beam Behavior away from the Waist 9.3. Six Questions 9.3.1. Known z and b 9.3.2. Known ρ and b′ 9.3.3. Known z and b′ 9.3.4. Known ρ and b 9.3.5. Known z and ρ 9.3.6. Known b and b′ 9.4. Gaussian Beam Propagation 9.4.1. Free Space Propagation 9.4.2. Propagation through a Lens 9.4.3. Propagation Using Matrix Optics 9.4.4. Propagation Example 9.5. Collins Chart 9.5.1. Relay Lenses in the Collins Chart 9.5.2. Finding Solutions with the Collins Chart 9.6. Stable Laser Cavity Design 9.6.1. Design Problem: Matching Curvatures 9.6.2. Analysis of a Laser Cavity 9.6.3. More Complicated Cavities 9.6.4. Summary of Stable Cavity Design 9.7. Hermite–Gaussian Modes 9.7.1. Mode Definitions 9.7.2. Expansion in Hermite–Gaussian Modes 9.7.3. Coupling Equations and Mode Losses 9.7.4. Summary of Hermite–Gaussian Modes 10. Coherence 10.1. Definitions 10.2. Discrete Frequencies 10.3. Temporal Coherence 10.3.1. Weiner–Khintchine Theorem 10.3.2. Example: LED 10.3.3. Example: Beamsplitters 10.3.4. Example: Optical Coherence Tomography 10.4. Spatial Coherence 10.4.1. Van–Cittert–Zernike Theorem 10.4.2. Example: Coherent and Incoherent Source 10.4.3. Speckle in Scattered Light 10.5. Controlling Coherence 10.5.1. Increasing Coherence 10.5.2. Decreasing Coherence 10.6. Summary 11. Fourier Optics 11.1. Coherent Imaging 11.1.1. Fourier Analysis 11.1.2. Computation 11.1.3. Isoplanatic Systems 11.1.4. Sampling: Aperture as Anti-Aliasing Filter 11.1.5. Amplitude Transfer Function 11.1.6. Point-Spread Function 11.1.7. General Optical System 11.2. Incoherent Imaging Systems 11.2.1. Incoherent Point-Spread Function 11.2.2. Incoherent Transfer Function 11.2.3. Camera 11.3. Characterizing an Optical System 12. Radiometry and Photometry 12.1. Basic Radiometry 12.1.1. Quantities, Units, and Definitions 12.1.2. Radiance Theorem 12.1.3. Radiometric Analysis: An Idealized Example 12.1.4. Practical Example 12.2. Spectral Radiometry 12.2.1. Some Definitions 12.2.2. Examples 12.2.3. Spectral Matching Factor 12.3. Photometry and Colorimetry 12.3.1. Spectral Luminous Efficiency Function 12.3.2. Photometric Quantities 12.3.3. Color 12.3.4. Other Color Sources 12.3.5. Reflected Color 12.4. Instrumentation 12.4.1. Radiometer or Photometer 12.4.2. Power Measurement: The Integrating Sphere 12.5. Blackbody Radiation 12.5.1. Background 12.5.2. Useful Blackbody-Radiation Equations and Approximations 12.5.3. Some Examples 13. Optical Detection 13.1. Photons 13.1.1. Photocurrent 13.1.2. Examples 13.2. Photon Statistics 13.2.1. Mean and Standard Deviation 13.2.2. Example 13.3. Detector Noise 13.3.1. Thermal Noise 13.3.2. Noise-Equivalent Power 13.3.3. Example 13.4. Photon Detectors 13.4.1. Photomultiplier 13.4.2. Semiconductor Photodiode 13.4.3. Detector Circuit 13.4.4. Typical Semiconductor Detectors 13.5. Thermal Detectors 13.5.1. Energy Detection Concept 13.5.2. Power Measurement 13.5.3. Thermal Detector Types 13.6. Array Detectors 13.6.1. Types of Arrays 13.6.2. Example 14. Nonlinear Optics 14.1. Some Non-Linear Processes 14.2. Wave Equations 14.3. Phase Matching 14.4. Nonlinear Processes 14.4.1. Energy-Level Diagrams 14.4.2. χ[2] Processes 14.4.3. χ[3] Processes 14.4.4. Nonparametric Processes: Multiphoton Fluorescence 14.4.5. Other Processes 14.5. Summary 15. Optical Breadboarding 15.1. Optics Research Laboratory 15.1.1. Location and Facilities 15.1.2. Tables 15.1.3. Support Equipment 15.1.4. Basic Equipment 15.2. Starting in an Existing Lab 15.3. Some Experiments 15.3.1. Basics: An Imaging System 15.3.2. Telescope 15.3.3. Spectroscopy 15.3.4. Polarization 15.3.5. Interferometry 15.4. Cleaning Optics 15.4.1. Preparation 15.4.2. Practice 15.4.3. The Real Test 15.5. Laser Safety 15.5.1. Wavelength Issues 15.5.2. Temporal Effects 15.5.3. Laser Classification 15.5.4. Protective Eyeware 15.5.5. Resources Appendix A. Notation and Drawings for Geometric Optics A.1. Direction A.2. Angles and the Plane of Incidence A.3. Vertices A.4. Notation Conventions A.4.1. Curvature A.5. Solid and Dashed Lines A.6. Stops B. Solid Angle B.1. Solid Angle Defined B.2. Integration over Solid Angle C. Matrix Mathematics C.1. Vectors and Matrices: Multiplication C.2. Cascading Matrices C.3. Adjoint C.4. Inner and Outer Products C.5. Determinant C.6. Inverse C.7. Unitary Matrices C.8. Eigenvectors D. Light Propagation in Biological Tissue E. Useful Matrices E.1. ABCD Matrices E.2. Jones Matrices F. Numerical Constants and Conversion Factors F.1. Fundamental Constants and Useful Numbers F.2. Conversion Factors F.3. Wavelengths F.4. Indices of Refraction F.5. Multiplier Prefixes F.6. Decibels G. Solutions to Chapter Problems G.1. Chapter 1 G.2. Chapter 2 G.3. Chapter 3 G.4. Chapter 4 G.5. Chapter 5 G.6. Chapter 6 G.7. Chapter 7 G.8. Chapter 8 G.9. Chapter 9 G.10. Chapter 10 G.11. Chapter 11 G.12. Chapter 12 Bibliography Index This textbook provides an accessible introduction to the fundamentals of geometric and physical optics as they relate to practical problems encountered by engineers and researchers in designing and analyzing optical systems. In this updated edition, the author focuses on topics that are critical to understanding how the basic principles of optics affect design decisions. In addition to information on breadboarding experiments and prototypes, the new edition also expands its coverage of holography and discusses important state-of-the-art issues in modern optics.