Optics (Manchester Physics Series)

Optics as a subject has evolved dramatically in recent years, with many applications throughout science and technology. Front cover Flow diagram Title The Manchester physics series Title page Date-line Editors' Preface to the Manchester Physics Series Author's Preface Contents 1 THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT 1.1 Photons and Waves 1.2 Wave Theory 1.3 Electromagnetic Waves 1.4 Energy Flow in Electromagnetic Waves 1.5 Cosinusoidal Waves 1.6 Dispersion 1.7 Group Velocity Problems 1 2 COMBINATIONS OF WAVES 2.1 Waves and Phasors 2.2 The Complex Amplitude 2.3 Positive and Negative Frequencies 2.4 Beats between Oscillators 2.5 Standing Waves 2.6 Crossing Plane Waves 2.7 Similarities between Beats and Standing Wave Patterns 2.8 Standing Waves and the Doppler Effect 2.9 Standing Waves at a Reflector Problems 2 3 FOURIER THEORY AND WAVE GROUPS 3.1 Fourier Series and Spectra 3.2 Fourier Series with Exponentials 3.3 Fourier Transforms 3.4 Finding the Fourier Transform of a Non-Periodic Function 3.5 The Transform of a Modulated Wave 3.6 Convolution 3.7 Delta and Grating Functions 3.8 Autocorrelation and the Power Spectrum 3.9 Wave Groups 3.10 The Schrodinger Wave Group 3.11 An Angular Spread of Plane Waves Problems 3 4 WAVE PROPAGATION 4.1 Rays and Wavefronts 4.2 Reflection at a Plane Surface 4.3 Refraction at a Plane Boundary 4.4 Oscillatory Waves and Huygen's Principle 4.5 Fermat's Principle 4.6 Refractive Index and Wave Impedance 4.7 Partial Reflection of Plane Waves 4.8 Reflection at Oblique Incidence 4.9 Anisotropic Propagation 4.10 Double Refraction in a Uniaxial Crystal Problems 4 5 POLARIZATION OF LIGHT 5.1 Polarization of Transverse Waves 5.2 Formal Description of Polarized Light—Elliptical Polarization 5.3 Analysis of Elliptically Polarized Waves 5.4 Polarizers 5.5 Birefringent Polarizers 5.6 Quarter-and Half-Wave Plates 5.7 Optical Activity 5.8 Induced Birefringence 5.9 Liquid Crystal Displays Problems 5 6 GEOMETRIC OPTICS 6.1 The Concept of Rays 6.2 Perfect Imaging 6.3 Perfect Imaging of Surfaces 6.4 Spherical Surfaces—the Paraxial Approximation 6.5 General Properties of Imaging Systems 6.6 Ray Tracing—Separated Thin Lenses in Air 6.7 Ray Tracing—The Sine Law 6.8 Spherical Surfaces—The Concept of Wavefronts Problems 6 7 ABERRATIONS 7.1 Ray and Wave Aberrations 7.2 Wave Aberration on Axis—Spherical Aberration 7.3 Off-Axis Aberrations 7.4 Influence of Aperture Stops 7.5 The Reduction of Spherical Aberration by Corrector Plates 7.6 The Correction of Chromatic Aberration 7.7 Achromatism in Separated Lens Systems Problems 7 8 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 8.1 Lenses and Mirrors 8.2 Refraction in a Prism 8.3 The Simple Lens Magnifier 8.4 The Telescope 8.5 Advantages of the Various Types of Telescope 8.6 Binoculars 8.7 The Compound Microscope 8.8 Image-Forming Instruments—The Camera 8.9 Intensity, Flux, Illumination, and Brightness 8.10 Illumination in Optical Instruments Problems 8 9 INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION 9.1 Young's Experiment 9.2 Diffraction at a Single Slit 9.3 The General Aperture 9.4 Rectangular and Circular Apertures 9.5 The Field at the Edge of an Aperture Problems 9 10 FRESNEL DIFFRACTION 10.1 Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction—the Rayleigh Criterion 10.2 Shadow Edges—Fresnel Diffraction at a Straight Edge 10.3 Diffraction of Cylindrical Wavefronts 10.4 Fresnel Diffraction by Slits and Strip Obstacles 10.5 Spherical Waves and Circular Apertures—Half-Period Zones 10.6 Kirchhoff's Diffraction Theory Problems 10 11 THE DIFFRACTION GRATING AND RELATED TOPICS 11.1 The Diffraction Grating 11.2 Diffraction Pattern of the Grating 11.3 The Effect of Slit Width and Shape 11.4 Fourier Transforms in Grating Theory 11.5 Missing Orders and Blazed Gratings 11.6 Making Gratings 11.7 Radio Antenna Arrays 11.8 X-Ray Diffraction with a Ruled Grating 11.9 X-Ray Diffraction by a Crystal Lattice Problems 11 12 YOUNG'S DOUBLE SLIT AND RELATED TOPICS 12.1 Young's Slits, FresnePs Biprism, and Lloyd's Mirror 12.2 The Effect of Slit Width 12.3 Source Size and Coherence 12.4 Michelson's Stellar Interferometer 12.5 The Intensity Interferometer Problems 12 13 INTERFERENCE BY DIVISION OF AMPLITUDE 13.1 Division of Amplitude—Newton's Rings 13.2 Interference Effects with a Plane-Parallel Plate 13.3 Thin Films 13.4 Michelson's Spectral Interferometer 13.5 Multiple Beam Interference 13.6 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer 13.7 Interference Filters Problems 13 14 THE RESOLUTION LIMITS OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The Telescope 14.3 Resolving Power and Sensitivity 14.4 The Microscope 14.5 Coherent Illumination in the Microscope (Abbe Theory) 14.6 Phase-Contrast Microscopy 14.7 Spatial Filtering 14.8 Resolution in Wavelength: The Prism Spectrometer 14.9 The Grating Spectrometer 14.10 Resolving Power of a Fabry-Perot Interferometer Problems 14 15 INTERFEROMETERS AND SPECTROMETERS 15.1 The Measurement of Length 15.2 The Rayleigh Refractometer 15.3 Wedge Fringes and End Gauges 15.4 The Twyman and Green Interferometer 15.5 The Standard of Length 15.6 The Michelson-Morley Experiment 15.7 The Ring Interferometer 15.8 The Choice of Spectrometers 15.9 The Grating Spectrometer 15.10 Concave Gratings 15.11 Echelle and Echelon Gratings 15.12 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer 15.13 Twin-Beam Spectroscopy 15.14 Fourier Transform Spectroscopy Problems 15 16 COHERENCE AND CORRELATION 16.1 The Region of Coherence 16.2 Correlation as a Measure of Coherence 16.3 Autocorrelation and Coherence 16.4 Aperture Synthesis 16.5 The Intensity Interferometer 17 LASERS 17.1 Light Amplification 17.2 The Laser as an Oscillator 17.3 Optical Cavities and their Properties 17.4 Pulsed Lasers 17.5 Mode Locking 17.6 Glass, Gas and Liquid Lasers 17.7 Semiconductor Lasers 17.8 Fibre Optic Communications 17.9 Properties of Laser Light 17.10 Harmonic Generation and Heterodyning 17.11 Homodyne Detection of Laser Light 18 HOLOGRAPHY 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Gabor's Original Method 18.3 A More Sophisticated System: Carrier Fringes 18.4 Aspect Effects 18.5 Three-Dimensional Holograms—Colour Holography 18.6 Holography of Moving Objects 19 RADIATION BY ACCELERATED CHARGES 19.1 The Electromagnetic Field 19.2 The Hertzian Dipole 19.3 Cerenkov Radiation 19.4 Synchrotron Radiation 19.5 Bremsstrahlung 20 PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN REFRACTION 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Polarization in Dielectrics 20.3 Free Electrons 20.4 Resonant Atoms in Gases 20.5 Anisotropic Refraction 20.6 Rayleigh Scattering 20.7 Raman Scattering 20.8 Thomson and Compton Scattering by Electrons 21 DETECTION OF LIGHT 21.1 Detection over the Electromagnetic Spectrum 21.2 Thermal Detectors 21.3 Photoconductive Detectors 21.4 Photoelectric Detectors 21.5 Photon-Counting Image Detectors 21.6 Electron Beam Scanners and Intensifies 21.7 Photodiodes and Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) 21.8 Photography 21.9 The Eye FURTHER READING SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS INDEX The Electromagnetic Spectrum Units, Symbols and Data Back cover This book is based on wave concepts and includes an introduction to the physics of wave motion. There are major changes from the original structure of the first edition, much of the material having been re-written to take account of developments in the last 15 years.