Personality and Individual Differences (Second Edition)

The study of individual differences is part of a well-established tradition in psychology that dates back more than a century. Individual differences researchers attempt to describe and explain how and why people differ, and what impact or consequences these differences have. Whereas most areas of psychology assume that every person is the same and hence attempt to explain the universal aspects of human behavior, individual difference theories are concerned with differences between people, or what makes everyone unique. Personality and Individual Differences is a state-of-the-art undergraduate textbook that covers the salient and recent literature on personality, intellectual ability, motivation and other individual differences such as creativity, emotional intelligence, leadership and vocational interests. " The second edition is now in full colour, completely revised and updated with the most recent and cutting-edge data and analysis as well as many more real-life examples. As well as introducing all topics relating to individual differences, this book examines and discusses many important underlying issues, such as the psychometric approach to latent variables, validity, reliability, and correlations between constructs. An essential textbook for first-time as well as more advanced students of the discipline, Personality and Individual Differences provides grounding in all the major aspects of differential psychology. Personality and Individual Differences......Page 1 Brief Contents......Page 7 Contents......Page 8 Preface to Second Edition......Page 12 Preface to First Edition......Page 13 Acknowledgements......Page 14 About the Author......Page 15 1: Introducing Individual Differences......Page 16 1.1: Introduction......Page 17 1.2: Personality: A Commonsense Idea......Page 19 1.3: Describing Individuals......Page 20 1.4: Abnormality......Page 23 1.5: Intelligence, Competition and Adaption......Page 24 1.6: Predicting Success......Page 26 1.7: Born Different?......Page 27 1.8: Other Abilities......Page 31 1.9: Variability and Change......Page 33 1.10: Creativity......Page 35 1.11: Leading the Way......Page 37 1.12: Interests......Page 39 2: Personality, Part I......Page 40 2.1: Introduction......Page 41 2.2: Overview and Approaches......Page 42 2.3: Definition of Personality Traits......Page 43 2.4: History of Personality......Page 45 2.5: Personality Traits and States......Page 51 2.6: Eysenck's Gigantic Three......Page 55 2.7: Self-Report Inventories......Page 58 2.8: The Biological Basis of Personality......Page 61 2.9: Gray's Personality Theory......Page 63 2.10: Cattell's 16PF and the Lexical Hypothesis......Page 65 2.11: The Five Factor Model (Big Five)......Page 68 2.12: Summary and Conclusions......Page 76 3: Personality, Part II - Validating Personality Tests......Page 78 3.2: Testing Personality Theories......Page 79 3.2.1: Correlation......Page 81 3.2.2: Regression Analysis......Page 85 3.2.3: Mediation Moderation and Structural Equation Modeling......Page 86 3.3: Personality and Social Behaviour......Page 89 3.4: Personality and Romantic Relationships......Page 91 3.5: Personality and Performance......Page 94 3.5.1: Personality and Educational Performance......Page 95 3.5.2: Personality and Job Performance......Page 97 3.6: Personality and Health......Page 99 3.7: Personality and Happiness......Page 103 3.8.1: Psychoanalysis and Personality Theory......Page 105 3.8.2: Behaviourism and Personality Theory......Page 107 3.8.3: Phenomenolocal Personality Theories......Page 111 3.8.4: Social-Cognitive Theories of Personality......Page 112 3.8.6: Behavioural Genetics......Page 114 3.8.7: Evolutionary and Cultural Approaches to the Study of Personality......Page 115 3.9: Summary and Conclusions......Page 116 4: Psychopathology......Page 118 4.1: Introduction......Page 119 4.2: Defining Abnormality......Page 120 4.3: Historical Roots of Psychopathology......Page 123 4.4: Modern Approaches to Psychopathology......Page 125 4.4.1: Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Theories......Page 126 4.4.2: Behaviourism......Page 127 4.4.3: Cognitive Revolution......Page 128 4.4.4: Biological Approaches......Page 129 4.5: Integrative Approaches to Psychopathology: The Biopsychosocial Model......Page 130 4.6: Diagnosis: Classifying Psychological Disorders......Page 131 4.7.1: Schizophrenia......Page 133 4.7.2: Affective Disorders......Page 137 4.7.3: Anxiety Disorders and Obsessional States......Page 139 4.7.4: Eating Disorders......Page 142 4.8: Criticisms of the Diagnostic Approach......Page 144 4.9: Dimensional View of Psychopathology and Personality Disorders......Page 145 4.10: Summary and Conclusions......Page 147 5: Intelligence, Part I......Page 150 5.1: Introduction......Page 151 5.2: Defining Intelligence......Page 152 5.2.1: Conceptualizing Intelligence......Page 153 5.3.1: Galton's Hereditary Genius......Page 155 5.3.2: J.M. Cattell's Mental Test......Page 158 5.3.3: Binet and the Origins of IQ Testing......Page 159 5.3.4: Spearman's g Factor of General Intellectual Ability......Page 162 5.3.5: Thurstone's "Primary" Mental Abilities......Page 164 5.4: Cattell's Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence......Page 169 5.5: Genetic VS. Environmental Causes of Intelligence......Page 171 5.6: Piaget and the Developmental Theory of Cognitive Ability......Page 173 5.7: The Great Debate: g VS. Multiple Abilities......Page 175 5.8: Summary and Conclusions......Page 178 6: Intelligence, Part II - Validating Intelligence and Correlates of IQ......Page 180 6.2: Wechsler's IQ Scale......Page 181 6.3.: Intelligence at School and University: Educational Outcomes......Page 184 6.4: In the Job: Occupational Outcomes of Intelligence......Page 187 6.5: Intelligence, Longevity and Health......Page 190 6.6: Intelligence and Social Class......Page 194 6.7: Race and Sex Differences in IQ: Facts, Controversies and Implications......Page 198 6.8: Sex Differences in IQ......Page 200 6.9: Even More Basic: Decomposing Intelligence......Page 206 6.10: Summary and Conclusions......Page 209 7: Behavioural Genetics......Page 211 7.1: Introduction......Page 212 7.2: Early Foundation of Behavioural Genetics......Page 213 7.3: DNA: Some Background......Page 216 7.4: The Power of Genes: Recent Evidence for the Heritability of Intelligence......Page 219 7.5: Intelligence and Assortative Mating......Page 220 7.6: The Importance of the Environment......Page 222 7.7: Biological Effects on Intelligence: Why do They Increase Across the Lifespan......Page 223 7.8: Genetic Causes of Personality Traits......Page 227 7.9: Genetic Basis of Maladaptive Behaviours......Page 231 7.10: Personality and Intelligence: Interplay Between Environment and Genes?......Page 232 7.11: Implications for Upbringing and Education......Page 234 7.12: Contradicting Genetics: The Flynn Effect......Page 235 7.13: Summary and Conclusions......Page 239 8: Beyond IQ - Theories of Hot Intelligence......Page 240 8.1: Introduction......Page 241 8.2: Streetwise Rather than Book Smart......Page 242 8.3.1: Defining Social Intelligence......Page 245 8.4: Theoretical Importance of Social Intelligence......Page 250 8.5: Early Problems......Page 251 8.6: Recent Approaches: From Multidimensionality to Implicit Theories......Page 255 8.7: Emotional Intelligence......Page 256 8.8: Debate and Controversy Surrounding Emotional Intelligence......Page 260 8.9: Origins and Measurement Problems of EQ......Page 261 8.10: Trait Emotional Intelligence: Emotional Self-Efficacy......Page 262 8.11: Practical Intelligence......Page 266 8.12: Summary and Conclusions......Page 267 9: Mood and Motivation......Page 269 9.1: Introduction......Page 270 9.2: Beyond or Underneath Traits......Page 271 9.3: Defining Motivation......Page 273 9.4.1: Reflexes......Page 278 9.4.2: Instincts......Page 279 9.4.4: Psychodynamic Approaches to Motivation......Page 280 9.4.5: Reinforcement: Motivation as Learned Associations......Page 281 9.4.6: Arousal Theories......Page 282 9.4.7: Expectancy Theories......Page 285 9.4.9: Maslow's Hierarchy of Motives......Page 286 9.4.10: Alderfer's ERG Theory......Page 287 9.4.11: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory......Page 290 9.4.12: McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory......Page 291 9.4.13 Two-Process Theories......Page 292 9.5: Mood States......Page 293 9.6: Structure of Mood......Page 295 9.8: Dispositional Influences on Mood States......Page 297 9.9: Integrative and Recent Approaches to Mood States......Page 298 9.10: Summary and Conclusions......Page 300 10: Creativity......Page 302 10.1: Introduction......Page 303 10.2: Definitions and Conceptualizations of Creativity......Page 305 10.3: Creativity Across Different Psychological Paradigms......Page 308 10.4: Differential Approaches to Creativity......Page 312 10.5: Creativity and Intelligence......Page 314 10.5.1: Creativity as a Form of Intelligence......Page 315 10.5.2: Intelligence as a Form of Creativity......Page 316 10.5.4: Creativity and Intelligence as Unrelated Constructs......Page 318 10.5.5: Creativity and Intelligence as Overlapping (Related) Constructs......Page 319 10.6: Creativity and Personality Traits......Page 322 10.6.1: Creativity in Abnormal Behaviour (Psychopathology)......Page 324 10.6.2: Creativity in Normal Behavior (the Big Five)......Page 329 10.8: Creativity in Different Fields (From Arts to Science)......Page 333 10.9: Summary and Conclusions......Page 334 11: Leadership......Page 336 11.1: Introduction......Page 337 11.2: Approaches to Leadership......Page 339 11.2.1: Early Foundations of Leadership: Freud's Group Psychology......Page 342 11.2.2: Trait Approaches to Leadership: The Great Man Theory......Page 345 11.2.3: From Attributes to Attributions: Leadership as a Perceived Construct......Page 348 11.2.4: Trait Approach: Survival and Revival......Page 349 11.2.5: Criticism of the Trait Approach......Page 355 11.3: Behavioural Approaches: Leadership Styles......Page 356 11.3.1: Charismatic Leadership......Page 357 11.3.2: Transformational Leadership: Leaders as Mentors......Page 362 11.3.3: Personality of Transformational Leaders......Page 364 11.3.4: Transactional Leadership: Controlling rather than Inspiring......Page 365 11.4: Leadership and Gender......Page 366 11.5: Summary and Conclusions......Page 368 12: Vocational Interests......Page 370 12.1: Introduction......Page 371 12.2: Approaches to Vocational Interests......Page 372 12.3: Linking Theory and Practice......Page 374 12.4: Stability of Interests: Evidence for Dispositional Nature......Page 375 12.5: Gender Differences in Vocational Interests......Page 377 12.7: Holland's RIASEC Typology......Page 382 12.8: Prediger's Three-Factor Model......Page 387 12.9: Holland and the Big Five......Page 388 12.10: Circumscription and Compromise: Gottfredson's Theory......Page 389 12.11: Trait Complexes and Interests......Page 390 12.12: Summary and Conclusions......Page 392 Glossary......Page 394 References......Page 402 Index......Page 442 Back Cover......Page 453 Psychology Personality and Individual Differences 1 Brief Contents 7 Contents 8 Preface to Second Edition 12 Preface to First Edition 13 Acknowledgements 14 About the Author 15 1: Introducing Individual Differences 16 1.1: Introduction 17 1.2: Personality: A Commonsense Idea 19 1.3: Describing Individuals 20 1.4: Abnormality 23 1.5: Intelligence, Competition and Adaption 24 1.6: Predicting Success 26 1.7: Born Different? 27 1.8: Other Abilities 31 1.9: Variability and Change 33 1.10: Creativity 35 1.11: Leading the Way 37 1.12: Interests 39 2: Personality, Part I 40 2.1: Introduction 41 2.2: Overview and Approaches 42 2.3: Definition of Personality Traits 43 2.4: History of Personality 45 2.5: Personality Traits and States 51 2.6: Eysenck's Gigantic Three 55 2.7: Self-Report Inventories 58 2.8: The Biological Basis of Personality 61 2.9: Gray's Personality Theory 63 2.10: Cattell's 16PF and the Lexical Hypothesis 65 2.11: The Five Factor Model (Big Five) 68 2.12: Summary and Conclusions 76 3: Personality, Part II - Validating Personality Tests 78 3.1: Introduction 79 3.2: Testing Personality Theories 79 3.2.1: Correlation 81 3.2.2: Regression Analysis 85 3.2.3: Mediation Moderation and Structural Equation Modeling 86 3.3: Personality and Social Behaviour 89 3.4: Personality and Romantic Relationships 91 3.5: Personality and Performance 94 3.5.1: Personality and Educational Performance 95 3.5.2: Personality and Job Performance 97 3.6: Personality and Health 99 3.7: Personality and Happiness 103 3.8: Current Developments Outside the Dispositional Paradigm 105 3.8.1: Psychoanalysis and Personality Theory 105 3.8.2: Behaviourism and Personality Theory 107 3.8.3: Phenomenolocal Personality Theories 111 3.8.4: Social-Cognitive Theories of Personality 112 3.8.5: Biological Approaches to Personality Theory 114 3.8.6: Behavioural Genetics 114 3.8.7: Evolutionary and Cultural Approaches to the Study of Personality 115 3.9: Summary and Conclusions 116 4: Psychopathology 118 4.1: Introduction 119 4.2: Defining Abnormality 120 4.3: Historical Roots of Psychopathology 123 4.4: Modern Approaches to Psychopathology 125 4.4.1: Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Theories 126 4.4.2: Behaviourism 127 4.4.3: Cognitive Revolution 128 4.4.4: Biological Approaches 129 4.5: Integrative Approaches to Psychopathology: The Biopsychosocial Model 130 4.6: Diagnosis: Classifying Psychological Disorders 131 4.7: Major Psychological Disorders 133 4.7.1: Schizophrenia 133 4.7.2: Affective Disorders 137 4.7.3: Anxiety Disorders and Obsessional States 139 4.7.4: Eating Disorders 142 4.8: Criticisms of the Diagnostic Approach 144 4.9: Dimensional View of Psychopathology and Personality Disorders 145 4.10: Summary and Conclusions 147 5: Intelligence, Part I 150 5.1: Introduction 151 5.2: Defining Intelligence 152 5.2.1: Conceptualizing Intelligence 153 5.3: History of Intelligence Testing 155 5.3.1: Galton's Hereditary Genius 155 5.3.2: J.M. Cattell's Mental Test 158 5.3.3: Binet and the Origins of IQ Testing 159 5.3.4: Spearman's g Factor of General Intellectual Ability 162 5.3.5: Thurstone's "Primary" Mental Abilities 164 5.4: Cattell's Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence 169 5.5: Genetic VS. Environmental Causes of Intelligence 171 5.6: Piaget and the Developmental Theory of Cognitive Ability 173 5.7: The Great Debate: g VS. Multiple Abilities 175 5.8: Summary and Conclusions 178 6: Intelligence, Part II - Validating Intelligence and Correlates of IQ 180 6.1: Introduction 181 6.2: Wechsler's IQ Scale 181 6.3.: Intelligence at School and University: Educational Outcomes 184 6.4: In the Job: Occupational Outcomes of Intelligence 187 6.5: Intelligence, Longevity and Health 190 6.6: Intelligence and Social Class 194 6.7: Race and Sex Differences in IQ: Facts, Controversies and Implications 198 6.8: Sex Differences in IQ 200 6.9: Even More Basic: Decomposing Intelligence 206 6.10: Summary and Conclusions 209 7: Behavioural Genetics 211 7.1: Introduction 212 7.2: Early Foundation of Behavioural Genetics 213 7.3: DNA: Some Background 216 7.4: The Power of Genes: Recent Evidence for the Heritability of Intelligence 219 7.5: Intelligence and Assortative Mating 220 7.6: The Importance of the Environment 222 7.7: Biological Effects on Intelligence: Why do They Increase Across the Lifespan 223 7.8: Genetic Causes of Personality Traits 227 7.9: Genetic Basis of Maladaptive Behaviours 231 7.10: Personality and Intelligence: Interplay Between Environment and Genes? 232 7.11: Implications for Upbringing and Education 234 7.12: Contradicting Genetics: The Flynn Effect 235 7.13: Summary and Conclusions 239 8: Beyond IQ - Theories of Hot Intelligence 240 8.1: Introduction 241 8.2: Streetwise Rather than Book Smart 242 8.3: Early Beginnings: Thorndike's Social Intelligence 245 8.3.1: Defining Social Intelligence 245 8.4: Theoretical Importance of Social Intelligence 250 8.5: Early Problems 251 8.6: Recent Approaches: From Multidimensionality to Implicit Theories 255 8.7: Emotional Intelligence 256 8.8: Debate and Controversy Surrounding Emotional Intelligence 260 8.9: Origins and Measurement Problems of EQ 261 8.10: Trait Emotional Intelligence: Emotional Self-Efficacy 262 8.11: Practical Intelligence 266 8.12: Summary and Conclusions 267 9: Mood and Motivation 269 9.1: Introduction 270 9.2: Beyond or Underneath Traits 271 9.3: Defining Motivation 273 9.4: From Biological Reflexes to Psychological Self-Realization 278 9.4.1: Reflexes 278 9.4.2: Instincts 279 9.4.3: Drive Theories 280 9.4.4: Psychodynamic Approaches to Motivation 280 9.4.5: Reinforcement: Motivation as Learned Associations 281 9.4.6: Arousal Theories 282 9.4.7: Expectancy Theories 285 9.4.8: Goal Setting 286 9.4.9: Maslow's Hierarchy of Motives 286 9.4.10: Alderfer's ERG Theory 287 9.4.11: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory 290 9.4.12: McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory 291 9.4.13 Two-Process Theories 292 9.5: Mood States 293 9.6: Structure of Mood 295 9.7: Situational Determinants of Mood 297 9.8: Dispositional Influences on Mood States 297 9.9: Integrative and Recent Approaches to Mood States 298 9.10: Summary and Conclusions 300 10: Creativity 302 10.1: Introduction 303 10.2: Definitions and Conceptualizations of Creativity 305 10.3: Creativity Across Different Psychological Paradigms 308 10.4: Differential Approaches to Creativity 312 10.5: Creativity and Intelligence 314 10.5.1: Creativity as a Form of Intelligence 315 10.5.2: Intelligence as a Form of Creativity 316 10.5.3: Creativity and Intelligence as Identical Constructs 318 10.5.4: Creativity and Intelligence as Unrelated Constructs 318 10.5.5: Creativity and Intelligence as Overlapping (Related) Constructs 319 10.6: Creativity and Personality Traits 322 10.6.1: Creativity in Abnormal Behaviour (Psychopathology) 324 10.6.2: Creativity in Normal Behavior (the Big Five) 329 10.8: Creativity in Different Fields (From Arts to Science) 333 10.9: Summary and Conclusions 334 11: Leadership 336 11.1: Introduction 337 11.2: Approaches to Leadership 339 11.2.1: Early Foundations of Leadership: Freud's Group Psychology 342 11.2.2: Trait Approaches to Leadership: The Great Man Theory 345 11.2.3: From Attributes to Attributions: Leadership as a Perceived Construct 348 11.2.4: Trait Approach: Survival and Revival 349 11.2.5: Criticism of the Trait Approach 355 11.3: Behavioural Approaches: Leadership Styles 356 11.3.1: Charismatic Leadership 357 11.3.2: Transformational Leadership: Leaders as Mentors 362 11.3.3: Personality of Transformational Leaders 364 11.3.4: Transactional Leadership: Controlling rather than Inspiring 365 11.4: Leadership and Gender 366 11.5: Summary and Conclusions 368 12: Vocational Interests 370 12.1: Introduction 371 12.2: Approaches to Vocational Interests 372 12.3: Linking Theory and Practice 374 12.4: Stability of Interests: Evidence for Dispositional Nature 375 12.5: Gender Differences in Vocational Interests 377 12.6: Person-Environment Fit 382 12.7: Holland's RIASEC Typology 382 12.8: Prediger's Three-Factor Model 387 12.9: Holland and the Big Five 388 12.10: Circumscription and Compromise: Gottfredson's Theory 389 12.11: Trait Complexes and Interests 390 12.12: Summary and Conclusions 392 Glossary 394 References 402 Index 442 Back Cover 453 differential psychology,individual differences,psychology,intelligence,IQ,the big five,creativity,motivation,leadership,vocational interests,psychopathology,personality,behavioural genetics,mood Introducing individual differences : from everyday to psychological questions Personality part i Personality part ii : validating personality traits Psychopathology Intelligence Part I Intelligence Part II : validating intelligence and correlates of IQ (causes and consequences) Behavioral genetics Beyond IQ : theories of hot intelligence Mood and motivation Creativity.