Plants : Diversity and Evolution

Introducing students to the fundamental concepts of botany, plant science, plant ecology and plant evolutionary biology, this book uses well-defined technical terms and extensive examples. It describes the evolution of land plants and algae in relation to environmental change and examines their biochemical, physiological and morphological adaptations to differing environments. Chapters on plant cell characteristics, new classifications and the topical issue of plant exploitation are included.Cover has title rendered as Plants: Diversity and Evolution, but the titlepage has the title as Plants: Evolution and Diversity. Content 3 Chapter 1 Process, form and pattern 14 1.1 Living at the edge of chaos 14 1.1.1 The pre-biotic Earth 15 1.1.2 Complex molecules and self-organisation 17 1.1.3 The RNA world 19 1.1.4 How to recognise a living system 20 1.2 Process: the evolution of photosynthesis 22 1.2.1 Pigments 22 1.2.2 Harvesting light and transferring energy 25 1.2.3 Anoxygenic photosynthesis 27 1.2.4 Oxygenic photosynthesis 28 1.2.5 Carbon fixation 30 1.2.6 The cyanobacteria and Prochlorophytes 31 1.3 Form: the origin of complex cells 32 1.3.1 Cell membranes and cell walls 32 1.3.1 Cell membranes and cell walls 32 1.3.2 The domains of life 34 1.3.3 The nucleus, the cytoskeleton and cell division 35 1.3.4 Organelles 36 Endosymbiosis 37 The origin of chloroplasts 38 Centrioles and flagella 39 1.3.5 Reproduction 40 Sex 41 Multiplication and dispersal 44 Life cycles 44 1.3.6 Photosynthetic eukaryotes 47 1.4 Pattern: multicellularity in the algae 51 1.4.1 Coenocytic or siphonous forms 52 1.4.2 Colonial forms 53 1.4.3 Filamentous forms 54 1.4.4 Flat sheets (thalloid) and three-dimensional forms 56 1.4.5 Inter-cellular connections and the differentiated body 56 1.4.6 The brown algae 57 1.4.7 Green algae (Chlorophyta) 59 1.5 What is a plant? 61 1.5.1 How do plants differ from other living organisms? 63 1.5.2 The challenge of the land 64 1.5.3 The characteristics of plants (Plantae, Embryobionta) 66 1.5.4 The first plants 66 1.6 Sub-aerial transmigration of plants 67 Further reading for Chapter 1 68 Chapter 2 The genesis of form 69 2.1 Plant development 69 2.1.1 Plant cells and tissues 70 2.1.2 The cell wall 71 2.1.3 Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma 71 2.2 Plant growth and differentiation 73 2.2.1 Shoot apical meristems (SAMs) and shoot systems 75 2.2.2 Differentiation in leaves 79 2.2.3 Branching 80 2.2.4 Root apical meristems (RAMs) and root systems 82 2.2.5 Secondary thickening 85 2.2.6 The bark 87 2.3 The integration of developmental processes 88 2.3.1 Growth factors 90 2.3.2 Inter-cell communication 92 2.3.3 Electrical signalling in plants 93 2.4 Cellular determination 94 2.4.1 Polarity of organisation 94 2.4.3 Meristemoids and local polarity in leaves 96 2.4.4 The formation of cellular patterns 99 2.5 The epigenetics of plant development 100 2.5.1 Differentiation in the axis 102 2.5.2 Identity genes and floral development 102 2.5.2 The ABC model of floral development 105 2.5.3 The evolution of identity genes 105 2.6 The theory of morphospace 107 Further reading for Chapter 2 108 Chapter 3 Endless forms? 110 3.1 The living response 110 3.1.1 The plant in its world: macrocosm and microcosm 110 3.1.2 Responding to the environment 111 3.1.3 Responding to the environment 113 3.1.4 Physiological responses 115 3.2 The nature of evolutionary processes 117 3.2.1 The limitations of orthodox Neo-Darwinian views 118 3.2.2 The integration and harmonisation of plant form 118 3.2.3 The dance through morphospace 120 3.3 Order, transformation and emergence 121 3.3.1 The developmental sequence 123 3.4 Macromutation and evolutionary novelty 125 3.4.1 Growth forms in the Gesneriaceae 126 3.5 Unity and diversity; constraint and relaxation 128 3.6 The phenotype 129 3.6.1 Developmental reaction norms 129 3.6.2 Ontogenetic contingency 130 3.6.3 Evolution of the plastic phenotype 130 3.6.4 Adaptive landscapes 132 3.7 Variation and isolation 133 3.7.1 Naming diversity 134 3.8 Conceptualising plant form 136 3.8.1 What is an individual plant? 136 3.8.2 The classical shoot model 136 3.8.3 Leaf form 137 3.8.4 Phyllotaxis 140 3.8.5 The architecture of plants 142 3.8.7 The whole plant 144 Further reading for Chapter 3 146 Chapter 4 Sex, multiplication and dispersal 148 4.1 The yin and yang of reproduction 148 4.2 Sex 149 4.2.1 Sex organs and cells 149 4.2.2 Sexy plants and tissues – the gametophyte 151 4.3 Dispersal 153 4.3.1 Spores, elaters and sporangia 154 Capsules in bryophytes 155 Pollen, microsporangia and stamens 156 4.3.2 Cross-fertilisation and establishment 157 Heterothally 157 Anisospory 158 Heterospory 158 Endosporic development 159 4.3.3 Ovules and seeds 160 4.3.4 Carpels, pistils and fruits 162 4.4 From sex to establishment 163 4.4.1 Sexual development 163 4.4.2 Pollination 166 4.4.3 Fertilisation and embryogenesis 168 4.4.4 Reproductive strategies 170 4.4.5 Germination and seedling growth 171 4.4.6 Vegetative spread 172 4.5 Dispersal mechanisms 174 4.5.1 Wind dispersal 174 Spore and pollen release 174 Bouyancy 176 Deposition and entrapment 177 4.5.2 Water dispersal 178 Aquatic pollination 179 4.5.3 Animal dispersal 181 Primary attractants 181 POLLOEN AND sPORES 181 OVULES OR SEEDS 182 NECTAR 184 OIL, FOOD AND WAX 186 FRUITS 186 4.6 The diversity of flowers 187 4.6.1 Flower scents 187 4.6.2 Flower colour and texture 188 4.6.3 Flower symmetry 190 4.6.4 Flower architecture 191 4.6.5 Flower pollination syndromes 194 4.6.6 Breeding systems 199 Further reading for Chapter 4 203 Chapter 5 Ordering the paths of diversity 204 5.1 The phylogeny of plants 204 5.1.1 The paths of diversity 204 5.1.2 The archetypes of plants 205 5.1.3 The taxonomic hierarchy 206 5.1.4 Kingdom Plantae or subkingdom Embryobionta: plants 208 5.1.5 The main groups of plants 208 5.2 The non-flowering plants 210 5.2.1 Division Marchantiophyta – liverworts 210 Class Jungermanniopsida 210 SUBCLASS JUNGERMANNIIDAE (LEAFY LIVERWORTS) 210 SUBCLASS METZGERIIDAE (SIMPLE THALLOID LIVERWORTS) 210 Class Marchantiopsida 211 SUBCLASS MARCHANTIIDAE (COMPLEX THALLOID LIVERWORTS) 211 SUBCLASS SPHAEROCARPIDAE (BOTTLE LIVERWORTS) 212 5.2.2 Hornworts – division Anthocerophyta 212 Order Notothylales 212 Order Anthocerotales 212 5.2.3 Mosses – division Bryophyta 213 Class Sphagnopsida (peat or bog mosses) 213 Class Takakiopsida (Takakia) 214 Class Andreaeopsida (‘granite ’, ‘lantern ’or ‘stone ’mosses) 214 Class Bryopsida (‘true ’mosses) 214 SUBCLASS POLYTRICHIDAE (HAIR-CAP MOSSES) 214 SUBCLASS TETRAPHIDAE 215 SUBCLASS BRYIDAE (ARTHRODONTOUS MOSSES) 215 5.2.4 Vascular land plants – division Tracheophyta 216 5.2.5 Subdivision Lycophytina 217 Class Lycopsida – clubmosses 217 Class Selaginellopsida (Selaginella) 218 Class Isoetopsida, Isoetes – Quillworts 219 5.2.6 Euphyllophytes 220 5.2.7 Subdivision Psilotophytina 220 Class Psilotopsida – whiskferns 220 Class Ophioglossopsida – Adder’s-tongue ferns 221 5.2.8 Subdivision Polypodiophytina 221 Class Marattiopsida – Eusporangiate or primitive ferns 221 Class Equisetopsida, Equisetum – Horsetails 222 Class Polypodiopsida – Leptosporangiate or modern ferns 223 OSMUNDALES, THE ROYAL FERNS 223 HYMENOPHYLLALES, THE FILMY FERNS 223 GLEICHENEALES, THE THICKET FERNS 224 DIPTERIDIALES, THE FAN FERNS 225 MATONIALES, THE FORKED FERNS 225 SCHIZAEALES, THE CLIMBING AND FRANKINCENSE FERNS 225 MARSILEALES AND SALVINEALES, THE HETEROSPOROUS AQUATIC FERNS 225 CYATHEALES, THE TREE-FERNS 226 POLYPODIALES, THE POLYPODIACEOUS FERNS 227 5.2.9 Subdivision Spermatophytina – seed plants 228 5.2.10 Class Pinopsida – the gymnosperms 228 5.2.11 Subclass Ginkgoidae – Ginkgo 230 5.2.12 Subclass Cycadidae – Cycads 230 5.2.13 Subclass Pinidae – Conifers 231 PINALES (PINES AND FIRS) 232 ARAUCARIALES (MONKEY PUZZLES) 233 PODOCARPALES (PODOCARPS) 233 SCIADOPITYALES (UMBRELLA-PINES) 234 CUPRESSALES (REDWOODS, CYPRESSES AND JUNIPERS) 234 TAXALES, YEWS AND CALIFORNIA NUTMEG 234 5.2.14 Gnetidae, the gnetophytes 235 5.3 Class Magnoliopsida – flowering plants 236 5.3.1 Distinguishing features 236 5.3.2 Fossil record and origin 236 5.3.3 The evolutionary radiation of flowering plants 237 5.3.4 The phylogeny of flowering plants 239 5.3.5 Basal flowering plants and Eumagnoliids 240 AMBORELLALES 240 NYMPHAEALES (WATER-LILIES) 241 SCHISANDRALES (INCLUDING ILLICIALES AND AUSTROBAILEYALES) 241 EUMAGNOLIIDS 242 CHLORANTHALES 242 PIPERALES (PEPPERS AND BIRTHWORTS) 242 LAURALES (LAURELS) 242 MAGNOLIALES (MAGNOLIAS) 242 CANELLALES 242 5.3.6 Monocots 243 ACORUS (SWEET-FLAG OR CALAMUS) 243 ALISMATALES (WATER WEEDS AND AROIDS) 244 ASPARAGOIDS DIOSCOREALES (YAMS) 244 PANDANALES (SCREW PINES) 244 LILIALES (LILIES) 245 ASPARAGALES (AMARYLLIS, IRISES AND ORCHIDS) 245 Commelinids 247 ARECALES (PALMS) 247 POALES (GRASSES, SEDGES AND RUSHES) 247 COMMELINALES (SPIDERWORTS) 249 ZINGIBERALES (GINGERS) 249 Basal Eudicots 250 RANUNCULALES (BUTTERCUPS, POPPIES AND BARBERRIES) 250 PROTEALES (PROTEAS, BANKSIA AND GREVILLEAS) 250 TROCHODENDRALES 251 GUNNERALES 251 Core Eudicots 251 CARYOPHYLLALES (CATCHFLIES, STONECROPS AND CACTI) 251 SANTALALES (SANDLEWOODS) 252 SAXIFRAGALES (SAXIFRAGES, CURRANTS AND STONECROPS) 252 VITALES (VINES) 252 BERBERIDOPSIDALES 252 Rosids and Asterids 253 5.3.7 Rosids 253 Basal Rosids 253 GERANIALES (GERANIUMS) 253 CROSSOSOMATALES 254 MYRTALES (EUCALYPTS AND MYRTLES) 254 Eurosid I 254 ZYGOPHYLLALES (CREOSOTE-BUSH AND LIGNUM-VITAE) 254 CELASTRALES (SPINDLE-TREE AND EBONY) 254 MALPIGHIALES (SPURGES, VIOLETS, WILLOWS AND PASSION-FLOWERS) 254 OXALIDALES (BERMUDA BUTTERCUP AND WOOD SORREL) 254 FABALES (LEGUMES) 255 ROSALES (ROSES AND ALLIES) 256 CUCURBITALES (GOURDS AND BEGONIAS) 256 FAGALES (OAKS AND BEECHES) 256 Eurosid II 257 BRASSICALES (CRUCIFERS) 257 MALVALES (HIBISCUS AND MALLOWS) 257 SAPINDALES (MAHOGANIES) 257 5.3.8 Asterids 258 Basal Asterids 258 CORNALES (DOGWOODS) 258 ERICALES (HEATHERS) 258 Euasterid I 259 GARRYALES (SILK-TASSEL) 259 GENTIANALES (GENTIANS AND BEDSTRAWS) 259 SOLANALES (POTATO AND MORNING GLORY) 260 LAMIALES (DEAD-NETTLES AND GESNERS) 260 BORAGINALES (BORAGES) 261 Euasterid II 261 AQUIFOLIALES (HOLLIES) 261 DIPSACALES (TEASELS AND HONEY-SUCKLES) 261 APIALES (UMBELS AND IVY) 262 ASTERALES (DAISIES, LOBELIAS AND BELLFLOWERS) 262 Further reading for Chapter 5 264 Chapter 6 The lives of plants 265 6.1 Plant diversity around the world 265 6.1.1 The kinds of plants 265 6.2 Aquatic and wetland plants 267 6.2.1 General adaptations of aquatic plants 269 6.3 Halophytes 273 6.3.1 General features of halophytes 273 6.3.2 Salt exclusion mechanisms 275 6.3.3 Osmoregulators and osmoconformers 276 6.3.4 Mangroves 279 6.3.5 Salt-marshes and mudflats 281 6.4 Plants of low-nutrient conditions 282 6.4.1 Mycorrhizal associations 283 6.4.2 Nitrogen-fixing symbionts 284 6.4.3 Mycotrophic (saprophytes) and mycorrhizal plants 286 6.4.4 Parasitic plants 288 6.4.5 Mistletoes...hemi-parasites of the canopy 291 6.4.6 Carnivorous plants 292 6.5 Plants of moist shady habitats (sciophytes) 295 6.5.1 The quality of light 297 6.5.2 The leaves of shade plants 298 6.6 Epiphytes, hemi-epiphytes and vines 299 6.6.1 The herbaceous vines and woody climbers 301 6.6.2 Stranglers 303 6.6.3 Hyper-epiphytes and ultra-epiphytes 303 6.6.4 Adaptations of epiphytes 303 6.7 Grasslands and savannas 308 6.7.1 Grasses 308 6.7.2 Adaptations of grassland and savanna plants 311 6.8 Plants of cold or hot arid habitats 312 6.8.1 Desert plants 314 6.8.2 Arctic and alpine plants 316 6.8.3 Tropicalpine plants 319 6.9 Island floras 321 6.9.1 The composition of floras on different islands 322 6.9.2 Relict floras and extreme disjunction 325 6.9.3 Adaptive radiation 326 6.9.4 Characteristics of island plants 327 Further reading for Chapter 6 329 Chapter 7 The fruits of the Earth 330 7.1 Exploiting plants 330 7.2 Plants for food 334 7.2.1 Cereal plants 334 7.2.2 Pulses 338 7.2.3 Oilseed crops 339 7.2.4 Root crops 340 7.2.5 Vegetables 341 7.2.6 Fruits and nuts 342 7.2.7 Sugar crops 344 7.3 Plants for craft and fuel 345 7.3.1 Timber 345 7.3.2 Fibres 347 Fibres from stems 347 Fibres from leaves 348 Fibres from seeds 348 7.3.3 Assorted materials 349 Turpentines, gums, industrial chemicals 349 Rubber 350 Dyes 350 7.3.4 Fuel 350 7.4 Plants for the soul 351 7.4.1 Herbs and spices 351 7.3.2 Drugs as medicines and remedies 355 7.4.3 Beverages 360 7.4.4 Alcohols from plants 362 7.4.5 Smokes, snuff and chews 365 7.4.6 Scents and perfumes 369 7.5 The scientific improvement of plants 369 7.5.1 Plant breeding 370 7.5.2 Crop plants and disease 370 7.5.3 GM (genetically manipulated) crops 372 7.6 The flowering of civilisation 374 7.6.1 Symbolic flowers 374 7.6.2 The plant collectors 376 7.6.3 Plantscapes 378 7.6.4 Future plantscapes 381 7.6.5 Threatened plant species and vegetation 382 7.6.6 In situ and ex situ conservation 383 Further reading for Chapter 7 383 Chapter 8 Knowing plants 384 8.1 The emergence of scientific botany 384 8.1.1 The legacy of the Ancient Greeks 385 8.1.2 Botany in China 389 8.1.3 Botany in the Renaissance 390 8.1.4 Botany in the seventeenth century 392 8.1.5 Botany in the Age of Enlightenment 394 8.1.6 Botany in the Age of Romanticism 398 8.1.7 Voyages of discovery 401 8.2 Evolutionary botany 401 8.2.1 From Revolution to evolution 401 8.2.2 Darwin and Wallace as botanists 405 8.2.3 The plant geography of Darwin and Wallace 406 8.2.4 The beginnings of ecology 408 8.2.5 Adaptation and the theory natural selection 409 8.2.6 Historical contingency versus rational morphology 411 8.2.7 Classification and evolutionary theory 414 8.3 Phylogeny, genetics and the New Systematics 416 8.3.1 Variation and the transformation of form 416 8.3.2 Gregor Mendel and the rise of genetics 418 8.3.3 Genetics and Neo-Darwinism 419 8.3.4 The ‘modern synthesis’ – new orthodoxy 420 8.3.5 Speciation 421 8.3.6 Plant ecology 423 8.3.7 Voices of dissent 424 8.3.8 The natural philosophy of plant form 426 8.3.9 The pursuit of objectivity 428 8.3.10 The triumph of molecular systematics 430 8.4 The green future 432 Further reading for Chapter 8 437 Index 439 Content......Page 3 1.1 Living at the edge of chaos......Page 14 1.1.1 The pre-biotic Earth......Page 15 1.1.2 Complex molecules and self-organisation......Page 17 1.1.3 The RNA world......Page 19 1.1.4 How to recognise a living system......Page 20 1.2.1 Pigments......Page 22 1.2.2 Harvesting light and transferring energy......Page 25 1.2.3 Anoxygenic photosynthesis......Page 27 1.2.4 Oxygenic photosynthesis......Page 28 1.2.5 Carbon fixation......Page 30 1.2.6 The cyanobacteria and Prochlorophytes......Page 31 1.3.1 Cell membranes and cell walls......Page 32 1.3.2 The domains of life......Page 34 1.3.3 The nucleus, the cytoskeleton and cell division......Page 35 1.3.4 Organelles......Page 36 Endosymbiosis......Page 37 The origin of chloroplasts......Page 38 Centrioles and flagella......Page 39 1.3.5 Reproduction......Page 40 Sex......Page 41 Life cycles......Page 44 1.3.6 Photosynthetic eukaryotes......Page 47 1.4 Pattern: multicellularity in the algae......Page 51 1.4.1 Coenocytic or siphonous forms......Page 52 1.4.2 Colonial forms......Page 53 1.4.3 Filamentous forms......Page 54 1.4.5 Inter-cellular connections and the differentiated body......Page 56 1.4.6 The brown algae......Page 57 1.4.7 Green algae (Chlorophyta)......Page 59 1.5 What is a plant?......Page 61 1.5.1 How do plants differ from other living organisms?......Page 63 1.5.2 The challenge of the land......Page 64 1.5.4 The first plants......Page 66 1.6 Sub-aerial transmigration of plants......Page 67 Further reading for Chapter 1......Page 68 2.1 Plant development......Page 69 2.1.1 Plant cells and tissues......Page 70 2.1.3 Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma......Page 71 2.2 Plant growth and differentiation......Page 73 2.2.1 Shoot apical meristems (SAMs) and shoot systems......Page 75 2.2.2 Differentiation in leaves......Page 79 2.2.3 Branching......Page 80 2.2.4 Root apical meristems (RAMs) and root systems......Page 82 2.2.5 Secondary thickening......Page 85 2.2.6 The bark......Page 87 2.3 The integration of developmental processes......Page 88 2.3.1 Growth factors......Page 90 2.3.2 Inter-cell communication......Page 92 2.3.3 Electrical signalling in plants......Page 93 2.4.1 Polarity of organisation......Page 94 2.4.3 Meristemoids and local polarity in leaves......Page 96 2.4.4 The formation of cellular patterns......Page 99 2.5 The epigenetics of plant development......Page 100 2.5.2 Identity genes and floral development......Page 102 2.5.3 The evolution of identity genes......Page 105 2.6 The theory of morphospace......Page 107 Further reading for Chapter 2......Page 108 3.1.1 The plant in its world: macrocosm and microcosm......Page 110 3.1.2 Responding to the environment......Page 111 3.1.3 Responding to the environment......Page 113 3.1.4 Physiological responses......Page 115 3.2 The nature of evolutionary processes......Page 117 3.2.2 The integration and harmonisation of plant form......Page 118 3.2.3 The dance through morphospace......Page 120 3.3 Order, transformation and emergence......Page 121 3.3.1 The developmental sequence......Page 123 3.4 Macromutation and evolutionary novelty......Page 125 3.4.1 Growth forms in the Gesneriaceae......Page 126 3.5 Unity and diversity; constraint and relaxation......Page 128 3.6.1 Developmental reaction norms......Page 129 3.6.3 Evolution of the plastic phenotype......Page 130 3.6.4 Adaptive landscapes......Page 132 3.7 Variation and isolation......Page 133 3.7.1 Naming diversity......Page 134 3.8.2 The classical shoot model......Page 136 3.8.3 Leaf form......Page 137 3.8.4 Phyllotaxis......Page 140 3.8.5 The architecture of plants......Page 142 3.8.7 The whole plant......Page 144 Further reading for Chapter 3......Page 146 4.1 The yin and yang of reproduction......Page 148 4.2.1 Sex organs and cells......Page 149 4.2.2 Sexy plants and tissues – the gametophyte......Page 151 4.3 Dispersal......Page 153 4.3.1 Spores, elaters and sporangia......Page 154 Capsules in bryophytes......Page 155 Pollen, microsporangia and stamens......Page 156 Heterothally......Page 157 Heterospory......Page 158 Endosporic development......Page 159 4.3.3 Ovules and seeds......Page 160 4.3.4 Carpels, pistils and fruits......Page 162 4.4.1 Sexual development......Page 163 4.4.2 Pollination......Page 166 4.4.3 Fertilisation and embryogenesis......Page 168 4.4.4 Reproductive strategies......Page 170 4.4.5 Germination and seedling growth......Page 171 4.4.6 Vegetative spread......Page 172 Spore and pollen release......Page 174 Bouyancy......Page 176 Deposition and entrapment......Page 177 4.5.2 Water dispersal......Page 178 Aquatic pollination......Page 179 POLLOEN AND sPORES......Page 181 OVULES OR SEEDS......Page 182 NECTAR......Page 184 FRUITS......Page 186 4.6.1 Flower scents......Page 187 4.6.2 Flower colour and texture......Page 188 4.6.3 Flower symmetry......Page 190 4.6.4 Flower architecture......Page 191 4.6.5 Flower pollination syndromes......Page 194 4.6.6 Breeding systems......Page 199 Further reading for Chapter 4......Page 203 5.1.1 The paths of diversity......Page 204 5.1.2 The archetypes of plants......Page 205 5.1.3 The taxonomic hierarchy......Page 206 5.1.5 The main groups of plants......Page 208 SUBCLASS METZGERIIDAE (SIMPLE THALLOID LIVERWORTS)......Page 210 SUBCLASS MARCHANTIIDAE (COMPLEX THALLOID LIVERWORTS)......Page 211 Order Anthocerotales......Page 212 Class Sphagnopsida (peat or bog mosses)......Page 213 SUBCLASS POLYTRICHIDAE (HAIR-CAP MOSSES)......Page 214 SUBCLASS BRYIDAE (ARTHRODONTOUS MOSSES)......Page 215 5.2.4 Vascular land plants – division Tracheophyta......Page 216 Class Lycopsida – clubmosses......Page 217 Class Selaginellopsida (Selaginella)......Page 218 Class Isoetopsida, Isoetes – Quillworts......Page 219 Class Psilotopsida – whiskferns......Page 220 Class Marattiopsida – Eusporangiate or primitive ferns......Page 221 Class Equisetopsida, Equisetum – Horsetails......Page 222 HYMENOPHYLLALES, THE FILMY FERNS......Page 223 GLEICHENEALES, THE THICKET FERNS......Page 224 MARSILEALES AND SALVINEALES, THE HETEROSPOROUS AQUATIC FERNS......Page 225 CYATHEALES, THE TREE-FERNS......Page 226 POLYPODIALES, THE POLYPODIACEOUS FERNS......Page 227 5.2.10 Class Pinopsida – the gymnosperms......Page 228 5.2.12 Subclass Cycadidae – Cycads......Page 230 5.2.13 Subclass Pinidae – Conifers......Page 231 PINALES (PINES AND FIRS)......Page 232 PODOCARPALES (PODOCARPS)......Page 233 TAXALES, YEWS AND CALIFORNIA NUTMEG......Page 234 5.2.14 Gnetidae, the gnetophytes......Page 235 5.3.2 Fossil record and origin......Page 236 5.3.3 The evolutionary radiation of flowering plants......Page 237 5.3.4 The phylogeny of flowering plants......Page 239 AMBORELLALES......Page 240 SCHISANDRALES (INCLUDING ILLICIALES AND AUSTROBAILEYALES)......Page 241 CANELLALES......Page 242 ACORUS (SWEET-FLAG OR CALAMUS)......Page 243 PANDANALES (SCREW PINES)......Page 244 ASPARAGALES (AMARYLLIS, IRISES AND ORCHIDS)......Page 245 POALES (GRASSES, SEDGES AND RUSHES)......Page 247 ZINGIBERALES (GINGERS)......Page 249 PROTEALES (PROTEAS, BANKSIA AND GREVILLEAS)......Page 250 CARYOPHYLLALES (CATCHFLIES, STONECROPS AND CACTI)......Page 251 BERBERIDOPSIDALES......Page 252 GERANIALES (GERANIUMS)......Page 253 OXALIDALES (BERMUDA BUTTERCUP AND WOOD SORREL)......Page 254 FABALES (LEGUMES)......Page 255 FAGALES (OAKS AND BEECHES)......Page 256 SAPINDALES (MAHOGANIES)......Page 257 ERICALES (HEATHERS)......Page 258 GENTIANALES (GENTIANS AND BEDSTRAWS)......Page 259 LAMIALES (DEAD-NETTLES AND GESNERS)......Page 260 DIPSACALES (TEASELS AND HONEY-SUCKLES)......Page 261 ASTERALES (DAISIES, LOBELIAS AND BELLFLOWERS)......Page 262 Further reading for Chapter 5......Page 264 6.1.1 The kinds of plants......Page 265 6.2 Aquatic and wetland plants......Page 267 6.2.1 General adaptations of aquatic plants......Page 269 6.3.1 General features of halophytes......Page 273 6.3.2 Salt exclusion mechanisms......Page 275 6.3.3 Osmoregulators and osmoconformers......Page 276 6.3.4 Mangroves......Page 279 6.3.5 Salt-marshes and mudflats......Page 281 6.4 Plants of low-nutrient conditions......Page 282 6.4.1 Mycorrhizal associations......Page 283 6.4.2 Nitrogen-fixing symbionts......Page 284 6.4.3 Mycotrophic (saprophytes) and mycorrhizal plants......Page 286 6.4.4 Parasitic plants......Page 288 6.4.5 Mistletoes...hemi-parasites of the canopy......Page 291 6.4.6 Carnivorous plants......Page 292 6.5 Plants of moist shady habitats (sciophytes)......Page 295 6.5.1 The quality of light......Page 297 6.5.2 The leaves of shade plants......Page 298 6.6 Epiphytes, hemi-epiphytes and vines......Page 299 6.6.1 The herbaceous vines and woody climbers......Page 301 6.6.4 Adaptations of epiphytes......Page 303 6.7.1 Grasses......Page 308 6.7.2 Adaptations of grassland and savanna plants......Page 311 6.8 Plants of cold or hot arid habitats......Page 312 6.8.1 Desert plants......Page 314 6.8.2 Arctic and alpine plants......Page 316 6.8.3 Tropicalpine plants......Page 319 6.9 Island floras......Page 321 6.9.1 The composition of floras on different islands......Page 322 6.9.2 Relict floras and extreme disjunction......Page 325 6.9.3 Adaptive radiation......Page 326 6.9.4 Characteristics of island plants......Page 327 Further reading for Chapter 6......Page 329 7.1 Exploiting plants......Page 330 7.2.1 Cereal plants......Page 334 7.2.2 Pulses......Page 338 7.2.3 Oilseed crops......Page 339 7.2.4 Root crops......Page 340 7.2.5 Vegetables......Page 341 7.2.6 Fruits and nuts......Page 342 7.2.7 Sugar crops......Page 344 7.3.1 Timber......Page 345 Fibres from stems......Page 347 Fibres from seeds......Page 348 Turpentines, gums, industrial chemicals......Page 349 7.3.4 Fuel......Page 350 7.4.1 Herbs and spices......Page 351 7.3.2 Drugs as medicines and remedies......Page 355 7.4.3 Beverages......Page 360 7.4.4 Alcohols from plants......Page 362 7.4.5 Smokes, snuff and chews......Page 365 7.5 The scientific improvement of plants......Page 369 7.5.2 Crop plants and disease......Page 370 7.5.3 GM (genetically manipulated) crops......Page 372 7.6.1 Symbolic flowers......Page 374 7.6.2 The plant collectors......Page 376 7.6.3 Plantscapes......Page 378 7.6.4 Future plantscapes......Page 381 7.6.5 Threatened plant species and vegetation......Page 382 Further reading for Chapter 7......Page 383 8.1 The emergence of scientific botany......Page 384 8.1.1 The legacy of the Ancient Greeks......Page 385 8.1.2 Botany in China......Page 389 8.1.3 Botany in the Renaissance......Page 390 8.1.4 Botany in the seventeenth century......Page 392 8.1.5 Botany in the Age of Enlightenment......Page 394 8.1.6 Botany in the Age of Romanticism......Page 398 8.2.1 From Revolution to evolution......Page 401 8.2.2 Darwin and Wallace as botanists......Page 405 8.2.3 The plant geography of Darwin and Wallace......Page 406 8.2.4 The beginnings of ecology......Page 408 8.2.5 Adaptation and the theory natural selection......Page 409 8.2.6 Historical contingency versus rational morphology......Page 411 8.2.7 Classification and evolutionary theory......Page 414 8.3.1 Variation and the transformation of form......Page 416 8.3.2 Gregor Mendel and the rise of genetics......Page 418 8.3.3 Genetics and Neo-Darwinism......Page 419 8.3.4 The ‘modern synthesis’ – new orthodoxy......Page 420 8.3.5 Speciation......Page 421 8.3.6 Plant ecology......Page 423 8.3.7 Voices of dissent......Page 424 8.3.8 The natural philosophy of plant form......Page 426 8.3.9 The pursuit of objectivity......Page 428 8.3.10 The triumph of molecular systematics......Page 430 8.4 The green future......Page 432 Further reading for Chapter 8......Page 437 Index......Page 439 Plants Are So Much Part Of Our Environment That We Often Take Them For Granted. How Did This Array Of Form And Habitat Come About, And How Do We Humans Interact With The Plant Kingdom? This Book Provides A Consideration Of These Questions And Throws Light In A New Way On The Complexity, Ecology, Evolution And Development Of Plants And Our Relationship With Them. Illustrated Throughout With Numerous Line Diagrams And Colour Photographs, The Book Provides A Unique Source Of Information About The Fascinating Lives That Plants Lead And The Way In Which Our Lives Are Inextricably Linked To Theirs. It Will Be Particularly Useful To Students Seeking A More Ecological And Process-oriented Approach Than Is Available In Other Plant Science Textbooks.--jacket. 1. Process, Form And Pattern -- 2. The Genesis Of Form -- 3. Endless Forms? -- 4. Sex, Multiplication And Dispersal -- 5. Ordering The Paths Of Diversity -- 6. The Lives Of Plants -- 7. The Fruits Of The Earth -- 8. Knowing Plants. Martin Ingrouille, Bill Eddie. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. Plants are so much part of our environment that we often take them for granted, yet beautiful, fascinating and useful plants are everywhere, from isolated moss colonies on stone walls to vast complex communities within tropical rainforests. How did this array of form and habitat come about, and how do we humans interact with the plant kingdom? This unique new textbook provides a refreshing and stimulating consideration of these questions and throws light in a new way on the complexity, ecology, evolution and development of plants and our relationship with them. Illustrated throughout with numerous line diagrams and beautiful colour photographs, the book provides a comprehensive introduction to the fascinating lives that plants lead and the way in which our lives are inextricably linked to theirs. It will be particularly useful to students seeking a more ecological and process-oriented approach than is available in other plant science textbooks.