Problem Solving

Problem solving is an integral part of everyday life yet few books are dedicated to this important aspect of human cognition. In each case, the problem, such as solving a crossword or writing an essay, has a goal. In this comprehensive and timely textbook, the author discusses the psychological processes underlying such goal-directed problem solving, and examines both how we learn from experience of problem solving and how our learning transfers (or often fails to transfer) from one situation to another. Following initial coverage of the methods we use to solve unfamiliar problems, the book goes on to examine the psychological processes involved in novice problem solving before progressing to the methods and processes used by skilled problem solvers or ''experts''. Topics covered include: how we generate a useful representation of a problem as a starting point; general problem solving strategies we use in unfamiliar situations; possible processes involved in insight or lateral thinking; the nature of problem similarity and the role of analogies in problem solving; understanding and learning from textbooks; and how we develop expertise through the learning of specific problem solving skills. Clear, up-to-date and accessible, Problem Solving will be of interest to undergraduates and postgraduates in cognitive psychology, cognitive science, and educational psychology. The focus on the practical transfer of learning through problem solving will also make it of relevance to educationalists and business psychologists. Book Cover......Page 1 Half-Title......Page 2 Title......Page 3 Copyright......Page 4 Dedication......Page 5 Contents......Page 6 Illustrations......Page 10 Preface......Page 13 PART ONE Introduction......Page 15 WHAT IS A PROBLEM?......Page 16 Knowledge needed to solve novel problems......Page 19 Different types of goal......Page 20 Well-defined and ill-defined problems......Page 21 Problems sharing the same structure......Page 22 METHODS OF INVESTIGATING PROBLEM SOLVING......Page 23 Protocol analysis......Page 24 Artificial intelligence models......Page 25 The problem of transfer of learning......Page 26 SUMMARY......Page 27 PART TWO Problem representation and problem-solving processes......Page 29 Part Two: Introduction......Page 30 THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH......Page 32 ANALYSING WELL-DEFINED PROBLEMS......Page 35 State-action spaces......Page 36 THE INTERACTION OF THE PROBLEM SOLVER AND THE TASK ENVIRONMENT......Page 41 HEURISTIC SEARCH STRATEGIES......Page 42 Hill climbing......Page 43 Means-ends analysis......Page 47 SUMMARY......Page 50 BUILDING A PROBLEM REPRESENTATION......Page 52 RE-REPRESENTING PROBLEMS......Page 53 Find an analogous solution......Page 54 GESTALT ACCOUNTS OF PROBLEM SOLVING......Page 55 Set effects......Page 57 Insight as a special property......Page 62 Kaplan and Simon’s account of insight......Page 63 Keane’s information-processing explanation of functional fixedness......Page 64 Ohlsson’s theory of insight......Page 66 Completing the solution......Page 68 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INSIGHT PROBLEMS AND OTHER PROBLEMS......Page 70 INFLUENCING PROBLEM REPRESENTATIONS: THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONS......Page 73 SUMMARY......Page 74 PART THREE Analogical problem solving......Page 76 Part Three: Introduction......Page 77 CHAPTER FOUR Transfer of learning......Page 79 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TRANSFER......Page 80 HYPOTHESIS TESTING THEORY......Page 81 TRANSFER IN WELL-DEFINED PROBLEMS......Page 83 Declarative and procedural knowledge......Page 86 Identical productions theory of transfer......Page 89 GENERAL TRANSFER......Page 96 Representational transfer......Page 97 WHAT KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER?......Page 98 SUMMARY......Page 99 TYPES OF SIMILARITY......Page 101 Structural similarities and differences......Page 102 Surface similarity......Page 105 Semantic constraints on analogising......Page 109 Proportional analogies......Page 110 Relational similarity: Reproductive or productive?......Page 111 Relational elements theory......Page 114 Gentner’s structure-mapping theory......Page 115 Mapping one structure on to another......Page 117 PRAGMATIC CONSTRAINTS......Page 118 THE RELATION BETWEEN SURFACE AND STRUCTURAL SIMILARITY......Page 119 SUMMARY......Page 121 THE IMPORTANCE OF ANALOGISING......Page 123 STUDIES OF ANALOGICAL PROBLEM SOLVING......Page 124 ACCESSING A SOURCE TO SOLVE A TARGET......Page 127 Principle cueing......Page 128 Using an example as an analogy......Page 130 Flowing waters or teeming crowds: Mental models of electricity......Page 132 Giora’s study......Page 134 The influence of far and near analogies......Page 135 Influencing thought......Page 136 “AESTHETIC” ANALOGIES......Page 137 SUMMARY......Page 138 CHAPTER SEVEN Textbook problem solving......Page 140 Assumed recall of already presented information......Page 141 Assumptions about generalisation......Page 142 THE ROLE OF EXAMPLES IN TEXTBOOKS......Page 143 THE PROCESSES INVOLVED IN TEXTBOOK PROBLEM SOLVING......Page 145 LABORATORY STUDIES OF WITHIN-DOMAIN AND TEXTBOOK PROBLEM SOLVING......Page 147 UNDERSTANDING PROBLEMS REVISITED......Page 151 THE ROLE OF DIAGRAMS AND PICTURES IN AIDING UNDERSTANDING......Page 152 Bridging analogies and intermediate representations......Page 153 PROVIDING A SCHEMA IN TEXTS......Page 155 SUMMARY......Page 156 PART FOUR Learning and the development of expertise......Page 158 Part Four: Introduction......Page 159 INDUCTION......Page 160 SCHEMA INDUCTION......Page 161 SCHEMA-BASED KNOWLEDGE......Page 163 Production system architectures......Page 165 SKILL LEARNING IN ACT-R......Page 169 Production memory in ACT-R......Page 171 Learning in ACT-R......Page 172 CRITICISMS OF PRODUCTION-SYSTEM MODELS......Page 174 NEUROLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE......Page 177 SUMMARY......Page 178 WHAT DISTINGUISHES EXPERTS AND NOVICES......Page 180 ARE EXPERTS SMARTER? ARE THERE DIFFERENCES IN ABILITIES?......Page 181 SKILL DEVELOPMENT......Page 184 The intermediate effect......Page 185 KNOWLEDGE ORGANISATION......Page 186 Schema development and the effects of automatisation......Page 187 Flexibility in thinking......Page 188 COGNITIVE PROCESSES......Page 190 The role of perception in skilled performance......Page 191 The role of memory in expert performance......Page 192 The writing process......Page 194 SUMMARY......Page 199 Operators......Page 201 PROBLEM REPRESENTATION......Page 202 TRANSFER......Page 203 LEARNING......Page 204 CHAPTER 5......Page 207 CHAPTER 10......Page 208 References......Page 216 Author index......Page 230 Subject index......Page 235 "In this textbook, the author discusses the psychological processes underlying such goal-directed problem solving and examines both how we learn from experience of problem solving and how our learning transfers (or often fails to transfer) from one situation to another." "Problem Solving will be of interest to undergraduates and postgraduates in cognitive psychology, cognitive science, and educational psychology. The focus on the practical transfer of learning through problem solving will also make it of relevance to educationalists and business psychologists."--Jacket Discussing the psychological processes underlying goal-directed problem solving, this text examines both how we learn from experience of problem solving and how our learning transfers (or often fails to transfer) from one situation to another