Radiation Safety : Management and Programs

This book discusses important fundamentals of radiation safety with specific details on dose units, calculations, measuring, and biological effects of ionizing radiation. The author covers different exposure situations and their requirements, and relevant legislation and regulations governing radiation safety. The book also examines radioactive waste management, the transport of radioactive materials, emergency planning and preparedness and various examples of radiation protection programs for industrial, medical, and academic applications. Preface 6 Acknowledgments 7 Contents 8 1 What Does Ionizing Radiation Mean? 13 Further Reading 20 2 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation 21 2.1 Classification of Biological Effects 24 2.2 Radiation Effects During Prenatal Development 28 2.3 Biological Indicators of Radiation Damage 29 References 32 3 Radiation Sources: Benefits and Risks 34 3.1 Radiation Sources in Medicine 34 3.2 Radiation Sources in Industry and Agriculture 39 3.3 Radiation Sources in Research and Education 42 3.4 Risks and Its Perception 44 References 48 4 Basic Quantities and Units in Radiation Safety 50 4.1 Source Quantities 50 4.2 Interaction Coefficients and Related Quantities 52 4.3 Dosimetric Quantities 54 4.4 Special Quantities 56 4.5 Operational Quantities 61 References 64 5 Measuring Instruments and Methods 66 5.1 Common Counting Methods for Monitoring 67 5.1.1 Gas Detectors 67 5.1.2 Scintillation Detectors 70 5.1.3 Solid-State Detectors 72 5.1.4 Other Detectors 74 5.1.5 Selection Criteria 75 5.2 Individual Monitoring and Personal Dosimetry 75 5.2.1 Film Badge Dosimetry 76 5.2.2 Luminescence Dosimetry 77 5.2.3 Other Personal Dosimeters 80 5.2.4 Chemical Dosimetry 82 5.2.5 Internal Dosimetry 83 References 86 6 Dose Assessment 88 6.1 Dose from an External Point Gamma Source 89 6.2 Dose from External Beta Sources 91 6.3 Dose from Neutrons 94 6.4 Dose from X-Rays 98 6.5 Dose Due to Intake of Radionuclides 99 References 105 7 Shielding 107 7.1 Shielding of Photons 108 7.1.1 Point Source Shielding 108 7.1.2 Extended Source Shielding 111 7.1.3 Shielding Against Scattered Radiation 112 7.1.4 Commercial Software 113 7.2 X-Ray Shielding 114 7.3 Shielding from Beta Radiation 115 7.4 Neutron Shielding 116 References 118 8 Exposure Situations 120 8.1 Types of Exposure Situation 121 8.2 Dose Constraints and Reference Levels 122 8.3 Types of Assessment 123 8.4 Exposure Categories 125 References 127 9 Regulations and Regulatory Control 128 9.1 Legal and Regulatory Framework 128 9.2 Regulatory Control 131 9.3 Purpose and Scope of Specific Regulations 131 9.4 Examples of Regulatory Control in United States 134 References 137 10 The Management System for Safety 139 10.1 Interested Parties to the System 140 10.1.1 The Regulatory Authority 141 10.1.2 Responsibility and Authority 141 10.2 Notification and Authorization 142 10.2.1 Notification 143 10.2.2 Authorization 143 10.2.3 Licensing in the United States 146 10.2.4 Authorization Process 149 10.3 Technical and Verification Requirements for Safety 151 10.3.1 Requirements for the Security of Sources 151 10.3.2 Defense in Depth 152 10.3.3 Good Engineering Practices 154 10.3.4 Monitoring and Verification of Compliance 154 10.3.5 Safety Assessment 155 References 156 11 General Principles of Radiation Protection 158 11.1 Justification 160 11.2 Optimization 162 11.2.1 Analytical Tree 166 11.2.2 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 168 11.2.3 Cost–Benefit Analysis 169 11.2.4 Multiattribute Utility Analysis 170 11.2.5 Multi-Criteria Outranking Analysis 171 11.3 Application of Dose Limits 171 References 173 12 Occupational Radiation Protection 176 12.1 Occupationally Exposed Individuals 176 12.2 Objectives 177 12.3 Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) 178 12.4 Radiation Protection Program 179 12.5 Classification of Areas 181 12.5.1 Controlled Areas 181 12.5.2 Supervised Areas 183 12.6 Procedures and Record Keeping 184 12.7 Monitoring Programs 187 12.7.1 Individual Monitoring and Exposure Assessment 188 12.7.2 Workplace Monitoring 190 12.8 Calibration 191 12.9 Personnel Education, Qualification, and Training 191 12.10 Conditions of Service 194 12.11 Quality Assurance 195 12.12 Medical Surveillance 196 References 197 13 Public Radiation Protection 200 13.1 Natural Sources of Radiation 201 13.2 Man-Made Radiation Sources 203 13.3 Public Exposure Control 208 References 209 14 Radioactive Waste Management 211 14.1 Clearance Levels 211 14.2 Radioactive Waste Management 212 14.3 Classification of Radioactive Waste 214 14.4 Pretreatment Procedures 219 14.5 Treatment Processes 223 14.6 Waste Conditioning 225 14.6.1 Immobilization Processes 226 14.6.2 Packaging 228 14.7 Storage and Disposal 230 14.8 Management and Disposal of Disused Sealed Sources 240 14.9 Conditioning of Spent Sealed Sources 242 References 244 15 Transport of Radioactive Materials 248 15.1 Classification of Material and Packages 249 15.2 Testing Requirements 252 15.3 Limits and Categories 255 15.4 Marking, Labeling and Placarding 259 References 262 16 Emergency Exposure Situations 263 16.1 Potential Exposure 263 16.2 The Analysis of Potential Exposures 264 16.3 Accidents and Consequences 267 16.4 The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES) 271 16.5 Emergency Planning and Preparedness 273 16.6 National Response Framework 273 16.7 EPA Protective Action Guides 276 16.8 Emergency Training 277 References 278 17 Radiation Protection Program Details 280 17.1 Irradiation Facilities 280 17.2 Industrial Radiography 285 17.3 Nuclear Gauges 291 17.4 Well Logging 295 17.5 Custom and Border Inspection 303 17.6 Unsealed Sources 308 17.7 Radiation Protection Program Development Checklist 314 References 325 Index 327 Front Matter....Pages i-xv What Does Ionizing Radiation Mean?....Pages 1-8 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation....Pages 9-21 Radiation Sources: Benefits and Risks....Pages 23-38 Basic Quantities and Units in Radiation Safety....Pages 39-54 Measuring Instruments and Methods....Pages 55-76 Dose Assessment....Pages 77-95 Shielding....Pages 97-109 Exposure Situations....Pages 111-118 Regulations and Regulatory Control....Pages 119-129 The Management System for Safety....Pages 131-149 General Principles of Radiation Protection....Pages 151-168 Occupational Radiation Protection....Pages 169-192 Public Radiation Protection....Pages 193-203 Radioactive Waste Management....Pages 205-241 Transport of Radioactive Materials....Pages 243-257 Emergency Exposure Situations....Pages 259-275 Radiation Protection Program Details....Pages 277-323 Back Matter....Pages 325-332