Renewable Energy Resources

__Renewable Energy Resources__ is a numerate and quantitative text covering the full range of renewable energy technologies and their implementation worldwide. Energy supplies from renewables (such as from biofuels, solar heat, photovoltaics, wind, hydro, wave, tidal, geothermal, and ocean-thermal) are essential components of every nation’s energy strategy, not least because of concerns for the local and global environment, for energy security and for sustainability. Thus in the years between the first and this third edition, most renewable energy technologies have grown from fledgling impact to significant importance because they make good sense, good policy and good business. This Third Edition is extensively updated in light of these developments, while maintaining the book’s emphasis on fundamentals, complemented by analysis of applications. Renewable energy helps secure national resources, mitigates pollution and climate change, and provides cost effective services. These benefits are analysed and illustrated with case studies and worked examples. The book recognises the importance of cost effectiveness and efficiency of end-use. Each chapter begins with fundamental scientific theory, and then considers applications, environmental impact and socio-economic aspects before concluding with Quick Questions for self-revision and Set Problems. The book includes Reviews of basic theory underlying renewable energy technologies, such as electrical power, fluid dynamics, heat transfer and solid-state physics. Common symbols and cross-referencing apply throughout; essential data are tabulated in appendices. An associated eResource provides supplementary material on particular topics, plus a solutions guide to Set Problems. __Renewable Energy Resources__ supports multi-disciplinary master degrees in science and engineering, and specialist modules in first degrees. Practising scientists and engineers who have not had a comprehensive training in renewable energy will find it a useful introductory text and a reference book. Cover 1 Title 4 Copyright 5 Dedication 6 Contents 8 Preface 16 Figure and photo acknowledgments 20 List of symbols 24 List of abbreviations 31 1 Principles of renewable energy 34 §1.1 Introduction 36 §1.2 Energy and sustainable development 37 §1.3 Fundamentals 42 §1.4 Scientific principles of renewable energy 47 §1.5 Technical implications 51 §1.6 Standards and regulations 60 §1.7 Social implications 60 Chapter summary 63 Quick questions 64 Problems 64 Bibliography 66 2 Solar radiation and the greenhouse effect 70 §2.1 Introduction 72 §2.2 Extraterrestrial solar radiation 73 §2.3 Components of radiation 74 §2.4 Geometry of the Earth and the Sun 75 §2.5 Geometry of collector and the solar beam 79 §2.6 Atmospheric transmission, absorption and reflection 82 §2.7 Measuring solar radiation 90 §2.8 Site estimation of solar radiation 90 §2.9 Greenhouse effect and climate change 95 Chapter summary 101 Quick questions 101 Problems 102 Bibliography 105 Box 2.1 Radiation transmitted, absorbed and scattered by the Earth's atmosphere 88 Box 2.2 Units of gas concentration 98 Box 2.3 Why we know that recent increases in C02 and in temperature are due to human activity (anthropogenic) 99 3 Solar water heating 108 §3.1 Introduction 110 §3.2 Calculation of heat balance: general remarks 112 §3.3 Flat-plate collectors 114 §3.4 Systems with separate storage 121 §3.5 Selective surfaces 125 §3.6 Evacuated collectors 129 §3.7 Instrumentation and monitoring 132 §3.8 Social and environmental aspects 133 Chapter summary 134 Quick questions 135 Problems 135 Bibliography 139 Box 3.1 Reference temperature Tref for heat circuit modeling 119 4 Other solar thermal applications 141 §4.1 Introduction 143 §4.2 Air heaters 143 §4.3 Crop driers 145 §4.4 Solar thermal refrigeration and cooling 150 §4.5 Water desalination 153 §4.6 Solar salt-gradient ponds 155 §4.7 Solar concentrators 156 §4.8 Concentrated Solar Thermal Power (CSTP) for electricity generation 165 §4.9 Fuel and chemical synthesis from concentrated solar 173 §4.10 Social and environmental aspects 174 Chapter summary 175 Quick questions 175 Problems 176 Bibliography 181 Box 4.1 Solar desiccant cooling 153 5 Photovoltaic (PV) power technology 184 §5.1 Introduction 186 §5.2 Photovoltaic circuit properties 189 §5.3 Applications and systems 194 §5.4 Maximizing cell efficiency (Si cells) 200 §5.5 Solar cell and module manufacture 209 §5.6 Types and adaptations of photovoltaics 212 §5.7 Social, economic and environmental aspects 224 Chapter summary 230 Quick questions 230 Problems 231 Bibliography 233 Box 5.1 Self-cleaning glass on module PV covers 200 Box 5.2 Solar radiation absorption at p-n junction 204 Box 5.3 Manufacture of silicon crystalline cells and modules 209 Box 5.4 An example of a sophisticated Si solar cell 218 6 Hydropower 235 §6.1 Introduction 237 §6.2 Principles 241 §6.3 Assessing the resource 242 §6.4 Impulse turbines 245 §6.5 Reaction turbines 250 §6.6 Hydroelectric systems 253 §6.7 Pumped hydro storage 257 §6.8 Social and environmental aspects 258 Chapter summary 260 Quick questions 261 Problems 261 Bibliography 264 Box 6.1 Measurement of flow rate Q 243 Box 6.2 'Specific speed' 249 Box 6.3 The Three Gorges hydroelectric installation, China 254 7 Wind resource 267 §7.1 Introduction 269 §7.2 World wind 270 §7.3 Characteristics of the wind 275 §7.4 Wind instrumentation, measurement, and computational tools and prediction 291 Chapter summary 297 Quick questions 297 Problems 298 Bibliography 299 8 Wind power technology 300 §8.1 Introduction 302 §8.2 Turbine types and terms 305 §8.3 Linear momentum theory 310 §8.4 Angular momentum theory 319 §8.5 Dynamic matching 322 §8.6 Blade element theory 328 §8.7 Power extraction by a turbine 332 §8.8 Electricity generation 336 §8.9 Mechanical power 347 §8.10 Social, economic and environmental considerations 349 Chapter summary 351 Quick questions 351 Problems 352 Bibliography 355 Box 8.1 Experiencing lift and drag forces 323 Box 8.2 Multimode wind power system with load-management control at Fair Isle, Scotland 346 9 Biomass resources from photosynthesis 357 §9.1 Introduction 359 §9.2 Photosynthesis: a key process for life on Earth 360 §9.3 Trophic level photosynthesis 361 §9.4 Relation of photosynthesis to other plant processes 364 §9.5 Photosynthesis at the cellular and molecular level 365 §9.6 Energy farming: biomass production for energy 376 §9.7 R&D to 'improve' photosynthesis 383 §9.8 Social and environmental aspects 384 Chapter summary 387 Quick questions 388 Problems 388 Bibliography 389 Box 9.1 Structure of plant leaves 367 Box 9.2 Sugar cane: an example of energy farming 377 Box 9.3 How is biomass resource assessed? 382 10 Bioenergy technologies 392 §10.1 Introduction 394 §10.2 Biofuel classification 397 §10.3 Direct combustion for heat 402 §10.4 Pyrolysis (destructive distillation) 407 §10.5 Further thermochemical processes 411 §10.6 Alcoholic fermentation 412 §10.7 Anaerobic digestion for biogas 420 §10.8 Wastes and residues 428 §10.9 Biodiesel from vegetable oils and algae 429 §10.10 Social and environmental aspects 431 Chapter summary 434 Quick questions 435 Problems 435 Bibliography 438 Box 10.1 Gross and net calorific values 399 Box 10.2 Ethanol in Brazil 416 Box 10.3 Bio/fossil balance of liquid biofuels 418 Box 10.4 Greenhouse gas balance of liquid biofuels 420 11 Wave power 441 §11.1 Introduction 443 §11.2 Wave motion 446 §11.3 Wave energy and power 450 §11.4 Real (irregular) sea waves: patterns and power 454 §11.5 Energy extraction from devices 460 §11.6 Wave power devices 463 §11.7 Social, economic and and environmental aspects 470 Chapter summary 472 Quick questions 473 Problems 473 Bibliography 476 Box 11.1 Satellite measurement of wave height, etc. 456 Box 11.2 Wave energy in the UK 463 Box 11.3 Basic theory of an OWC device 467 12 Tidal-current and tidal-range power 478 §12.1 Introduction 480 §12.2 The cause of tides 483 §12.3 Enhancement of tides 489 §12.4 Tidal-current/stream power 492 §12.5 Tidal-range power 498 §12.6 World tidal power sites 500 §12.7 Social and environmental aspects 502 Chapter summary 504 Quick questions 505 Problems 505 Bibliography 507 Box 12.1 Tsunamis 490 Box 12.2 Blockage effects on turbine output in narrow channels 497 13 Ocean gradient energy: OTEC and osmotic power 509 §13.1 General introduction 511 §13.2 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): introduction 511 §13.3 OTEC principles 512 §13.4 Practical considerations about OTEC 516 §13.5 Devices 519 §13.6 Related technologies 520 §13.7 Social, economic and environmental aspects 521 §13.8 Osmotic power from salinity gradients 522 Chapter summary 549 Quick questions 550 Problems 551 Bibliography 552 Box 13.1 Rankine cycle engine 515 14 Geothermal energy 528 §14.1 Introduction 530 §14.2 Geophysics 533 §14.3 Dry rock and hot aquifer analysis 536 §14.4 Harnessing geothermal resources 540 §14.5 Ground-source heat pumps 545 §14.6 Social and environmental aspects 547 Chapter summary 549 Quick questions 550 Problems 551 Bibliography 552 15 Energy systems: integration, distribution and storage 554 §15.1 Introduction 556 §15.2 Energy systems 556 §15.3 Distribution technologies 559 §15.4 Electricity supply and networks 563 §15.5 Comparison of technologies for energy storage 571 §15.6 Energy storage for grid electricity 574 §15.7 Batteries 577 §15.8 Fuel cells 585 §15.9 Chemicals as energy stores 586 §15.10 Storage for heating and cooling systems 588 §15.11 Transport systems 591 §15.12 Social and environmental aspects of energy supply and storage 592 Chapter summary 593 Quick questions 593 Problems 594 Bibliography 596 Box 15.1 It's a myth that energy storage is a challenge only for renewable energy 565 Box 15.2 Self-sufficient energy systems 565 Box 15.3 Capacity credit, dispatchability and predictability 568 Box 15.4 Grid stability with high wind penetration: west Denmark and Ireland 569 Box 15.5 Combining many types of RE enables large RE penetration: two modeled cases 570 Box 15.6 Scaling up batteries: flow cells 583 Box 15.7 A small island autonomous wind-hydrogen energy system 587 16 Using energy efficiently 600 §16.1 Introduction 602 §16.2 Energy services 604 §16.3 Energy end-use by sector 607 §16.4 Energy-efficient solar buildings 609 §16.5 Transport 624 §16.6 Manufacturing industry 632 §16.7 Domestic energy use 634 §16.8 Social and environmental aspects 635 Chapter summary 638 Quick questions 639 Problems 639 Bibliography 641 Box 16.1 Maximum efficiency of heat engines 606 Box 16.2 The impact of technology change in lighting in England, 1500-2000 606 Box 16.3 Summary of RE applications in selected end-use sectors 608 Box 16.4 Building codes 611 Box 16.5 The Solar Decathlon 619 Box 16.6 Electrochromic windows 622 Box 16.7 Curitiba: a case study of urban design for sustainability and reduced energy demand 628 Box 16.8 Proper sizing of pipes and pumps saves energy 633 Box 16.9 Energy use in China 637 17 Institutional and economic factors 645 §17.1 Introduction 647 §17.2 Socio-political factors 647 §17.3 Economics 653 §17.4 Life cycle analysis 655 §17.5 Policy tools 656 §17.6 Quantifying choice 659 §17.7 Present status of renewable energy 668 §17.8 The way ahead 668 Chapter summary 674 Quick questions 675 Problems 675 Bibliography 676 Box 17.1 Climate change projections and impacts 648 Box 17.2 External costs of energy 654 Box 17.3 Environmental impact assessment matrix 658 Box 17.4 Some definitions 660 Box 17.5 Contrasting energy scenarios: 'Business As Usual' vs. 'Energy Revolution' 673 Review 1 Electrical power for renewables 680 §R1.1 Introduction 681 §R1.2 Electricity transmission: principles 681 §R1.3 Electricity grids (networks) 683 §R1.4 DC grids 684 §R1.5 AC active and reactive power: transformers 684 §R1.6 Electric machines (generators and motors) 685 §R1.7 Special challenges and opportunities for renewables electricity 689 Quick questions 692 Bibliography 692 Review 2 Essentials of fluid dynamics 693 §R2.1 Introduction 694 §R2.2 Conservation of energy: Bernoulli's equation 694 §R2.3 Conservation of momentum 696 §R2.4 Viscosity 697 §R2.5 Turbulence 698 §R2.6 Friction in pipe flow 699 §R2.7 Lift and drag forces 701 Quick questions 704 Bibliography 704 Review 3 Heat transfer 706 §R3.1 Introduction 708 §R3.2 Heat circuit analysis and terminology 708 §R3.3 Conduction 712 §R3.4 Convection 714 §R3.5 Radiative heat transfer 721 §R3.6 Properties of 'transparent' materials 730 §R3.7 Heat transfer by mass transport 731 §R3.8 Multimode transfer and circuit analysis 734 Quick questions 738 Bibliography 739 Box R3.1 Heat transfer terminology 711 Review 4 Solid-state physics for photovoltaics 741 §R4.1 Introduction 742 §R4.2 The silicon p-n junction 743 §R4.3 Photon absorption at the junction 752 §R4.4 Solar radiation absorption at p-n junction 756 §R4.5 Other substrate materials; chemical Groups III/V and II/VI 759 Quick questions 760 Bibliography 760 Review 5 Units, labels and conversions: the algebraic method 761 Appendices 765 App A Units and conversions 765 App B Data and fundamental constants 769 App C Some heat transfer formulas 776 App D Comparison of technologies 780 Short answers to selected problems at end of chapters 788 Index 792 Renewable Energy Resources is a numerate and quantitative text covering the full range of renewable energy technologies and their implementation worldwide. Energy supplies from renewables (such as from biofuels, solar heat, photovoltaics, wind, hydro, wave, tidal, geothermal, and ocean-thermal) are essential components of every nation’s energy strategy, not least because of concerns for the local and global environment, for energy security and for sustainability. Thus in the years between the first and this third edition, most renewable energy technologies have grown from fledgling impact to significant importance because they make good sense, good policy and good business. This Third Edition is extensively updated in light of these developments, while maintaining the book’s emphasis on fundamentals, complemented by analysis of applications. Renewable energy helps secure national resources, mitigates pollution and climate change, and provides cost effective services. These benefits are analysed and illustrated with case studies and worked examples. The book recognises the importance of cost effectiveness and efficiency of end-use. Each chapter begins with fundamental scientific theory, and then considers applications, environmental impact and socio-economic aspects before concluding with Quick Questions for self-revision and Set Problems. The book includes Reviews of basic theory underlying renewable energy technologies, such as electrical power, fluid dynamics, heat transfer and solid-state physics. Common symbols and cross-referencing apply throughout; essential data are tabulated in appendices. An associated eResource provides supplementary material on particular topics, plus a solutions guide to Set Problems. Renewable Energy Resources supports multi-disciplinary master degrees in science and engineering, and specialist modules in first degrees. Practising scientists and engineers who have not had a comprehensive training in renewable energy will find it a useful introductory text and a reference book. "Renewable Energy Resources is a numerate and quantitative text covering the full range of renewable energy technologies and their implementation worldwide. Energy supplies from renewables (such as from biofuels, solar heat, photovoltaics, wind, hydro, wave, tidal, geothermal, and ocean-thermal) are essential components of every nation's energy strategy, not least because of concerns for the local and global environment, for energy security and for sustainability. Thus in the years between the first and this third edition, most renewable energy technologies have grown from fledgling impact to significant importance because they make good sense, good policy and good business. This Third Edition is extensively updated in light of these developments, while maintaining the book's emphasis on fundamentals, complemented by analysis of applications. Renewable energy helps secure national resources, mitigates pollution and climate change, and provides cost effective services. These benefits are analysed and illustrated with case studies and worked examples. The book recognises the importance of cost effectiveness and efficiency of end-use. Each chapter begins with fundamental scientific theory, and then considers applications, environmental impact and socio-economic aspects before concluding with Quick Questions for self-revision and Set Problems. The book includes Reviews of basic theory underlying renewable energy technologies, such as electrical power, fluid dynamics, heat transfer and solid-state physics. Common symbols and cross-referencing apply throughout; essential data are tabulated in appendices"-- Provided by publisher Renewable Energy Resources is a numerate and quantitative text covering the full range of renewable energy technologies and their implementation worldwide. Energy supplies from renewables (such as from biofuels, solar heat, photovoltaics, wind, hydro, wave, tidal, geothermal, and ocean-thermal) are essential components of every nation' s energy strategy, not least because of concerns for the local and global environment, for energy security and for sustainability