Reverse Osmosis: Industrial Processes and Applications, 3rd Edition

REVERSE OSMOSIS Reverse osmosis (RO) is the world’s leading demineralization technology. It is used to provide clean water for potable and ultrapure uses as well as to treat wastewater for recycle or reuse. Regardless of the application or industry, the basics of RO are the same. This book provides the reader with in-depth knowledge about RO basics for any application. This third edition is completely updated, still covering the basics of RO but with new insights as to how to optimize performance. Sections of the book cover the history of RO, membrane and transport model development, pretreatment to minimize membrane deposition and damage, effective cleaning and troubleshooting methods, and data collection and analysis. A new section was added that provides detail about RO and water sustainability. Alternative membrane materials and high-recovery RO are some of the topics included in this new section. Topics are presented in clear and concise language with enough depth to enhance comprehension. The reader will walk away with a new understanding of the topics covered in the book, thereby enabling them to optimize their own RO systems. Engineers and consultants will be able to design or troubleshoot RO systems more effectively. This book is the complete and definitive guide to RO for all persons concerned with RO systems. Cover Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Page Contents Preface to the 3rd Edition Acknowledgements Section I: Fundamentals Chapter 1 Introduction to Reverse Osmosis: History, Challenges, and Future Directions 1.1 Introduction 1.2 A Brief History of Reverse Osmosis 1.2.1 Early Development 1.2.2 Advances 1970s–1980s 1.2.3 Advances from 1990s through the Early 2000s 1.3 Challenges and Prospects 1.3.1 Membrane Materials Development 1.3.2 Modification of Element Construction for Ultra-High Pressure or High-Temperature Operation 1.3.2.1 Ultra-High Pressure Spiral Wound RO 1.3.2.2 High-Temperature Elements 1.3.3 Optimization of RO Element Feed Channel Spacer 1.3.4 Other Advances and Future Requirements 1.4 Summary Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 2 Principles and Terminology 2.1 Semipermeable Membranes 2.2 Osmosis 2.3 Reverse Osmosis 2.4 Basic Performance Parameters: Recovery, Rejection, and Flux 2.4.1 Recovery and Concentration Factor 2.4.2 Rejection 2.4.3 Flux 2.4.3.1 Water Flux 2.4.3.2 Solute Flux 2.5 Filtration 2.5.1 Dead-End Filtration 2.5.2 Cross-Flow Filtration 2.6 Concentration Polarization Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 3 Membranes: Transport Models, Characterization, and Elements 3.1 Membrane Transport Models 3.1.1 Solution-Diffusion Transport Model 3.1.2 Modified Solution-Diffusion Transport Models 3.1.2.1 Solution-Diffusion Imperfection Model 3.1.2.2 Extended Solution-Diffusion Model 3.1.3 Pore-Based Transport Models 3.1.4 Models Based on Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics 3.2 Polymeric Membranes 3.2.1 Cellulose Acetate 3.2.2 Linear Polyamide (Aramids) 3.2.3 Fully Aromatic Polyamide Composite Membranes 3.2.3.1 NS-100 Membrane 3.2.3.2 FT-30 Composite Membrane 3.2.4 Characterization of CA and Composite Polyamide Membranes 3.2.4.1 Surface Roughness 3.2.4.2 Zeta Potential (Surface Charge) 3.2.4.3 Hydrophilicity 3.2.5 Other Membrane Polymers 3.3 Membrane Elements 3.3.1 Plate and Frame Elements 3.3.2 Tubular Elements 3.3.3 Hollow Fine Fiber Elements 3.3.4 Spiral Wound Elements 3.4 Specialty Membranes and Elements 3.4.1 Specialty Membranes 3.4.1.1 Dry Membranes 3.4.1.2 Boron-Rejecting Membranes 3.4.2 Specialty Elements 3.4.2.1 Sanitary Elements 3.4.2.2 Disc Tube Elements 3.4.2.3 Vibratory Shear Enhanced Processing (VSEP) Elements and System 3.4.2.4 Ultra-High Pressure and High Temperature Elements Symbols Nomenclature References Section II: System Design and Engineering Chapter 4 Basic Design Arrangements and Concentration Polarization Guidelines 4.1 Arrays and Stages 4.1.1 Recovery per System Array 4.1.2 Element-By-Element Flow and Quality Distribution 4.1.3 Flux Guidelines 4.1.4 Cross-Flow Velocity Guidelines for Array Design 4.1.5 Concentrate Recycle 4.2 Passes Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 5 RO System Design Using Design Software 5.1 RO System Design Guidelines 5.2 Step-by-Step Design—Sample Problem 5.2.1 Step 1—Water Flux 5.2.2 Step 2—Membrane Selection 5.2.3 Step 3—Number of Elements Required 5.2.4 Step 4—System Array 5.3 Design Software 5.3.1 Water Application Value Engine (WAVE)—DuPont Water Solutions 5.3.2 IMSDesign—Hydranautics 5.3.3 Q+ Projection Software LGChem 5.4 Optimum Design Result for the Sample Problem Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 6 Design Considerations 6.1 Feed Water Source and Quality 6.1.1 Feed Water Source 6.1.2 Feed Water Quality and Guidelines 6.1.3 pH 6.1.3.1 pH Profile Through an RO System—Alkalinity Relationships 6.1.3.2 pH and Membrane Scaling Potential 6.1.3.3 pH Effects on Solute Rejection and Water Permeability 6.2 System Operations 6.2.1 Pressure 6.2.2 Compaction 6.2.3 Temperature 6.2.4 Balancing Flows 6.2.5 Designing for Variable Flow Demand 6.3 Existing RO System Design Considerations 6.3.1 Changing Membranes 6.3.1.1 Changing Membrane Area 6.3.1.2 Changing Membrane Types 6.3.1.3 Mixing Membrane Types 6.3.2 Increasing Recovery 6.3.3 Changing Feed Water Sources 6.3.4 Reducing Permeate Flow Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 7 RO Equipment 7.1 Basic RO Skid Components 7.1.1 Cartridge Filters 7.1.2 High Pressure Feed Pump 7.1.3 Pressure Vessels 7.2 Skid Design Considerations 7.2.1 Piping Materials of Construction 7.2.2 Feed Distribution Headers 7.2.3 Stage-by-Stage Cleaning 7.2.4 Sampling and Profiling/Probing Connections 7.2.5 Instrumentation 7.2.6 Controls and Data Acquisition/Analysis 7.2.6.1 System Control 7.2.6.2 Data Acquisition and Analysis 7.2.7 Designs for Variable Permeate Flow Demand 7.3 Energy Recovery Devices (ERDs) 7.3.1 ERD Types 7.3.2 ERD Applications for RO 7.3.2.1 Single-Stage RO 7.3.2.2 Multi-Stage RO 7.4 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Equipment 7.5 Mobile RO Equipment Symbols Nomenclature References Section III: Membrane Deposition and Degradation: Causes, Effects, and Mitigation via Pretreatment and Operations Chapter 8 Membrane Scaling 8.1 What is Membrane Scale? 8.2 Effects of Scale on Membrane Performance 8.3 Hardness Scales 8.3.1 Types of Hardness Scale 8.3.1.1 Carbonate-Based Hardness Scales 8.3.1.2 Sulfate-Based Hardness Scales 8.3.1.3 Other Calcium Scales: Calcium Phosphate and Calcium Fluoride 8.3.2 Mitigation of Hardness Scales 8.3.2.1 Chemical Pretreatment—Acid and Antiscalant Dosing 8.3.2.2 Non-Chemical Pretreatment—Sodium Softening and Nanofiltration 8.3.2.3 Operational Techniques—Flushing, Reverse Flow, and Closed Circuit Desalination 8.4 Silica Scale 8.4.1 Forms and Reactions of Silica 8.4.2 Factors Affecting Silica Scale Formation 8.4.3 Mitigation of Silica Scale 8.5 Struvite 8.5.1 What is Struvite? 8.5.2 Mitigation of Struvite 8.6 Scaling Mitigation Guidelines—Summary Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 9 Generalized Membrane Fouling 9.1 What is Membrane Fouling? 9.2 Classification and Measurement of Potential Foulants 9.2.1 Settleable and Supra-Colloidal Particulates 9.2.2 Colloids 9.2.2.1 Measurement of Colloids for RO Applications—Silt Density Index (SDI15) 9.2.2.2 Measure of Colloids—Modified Fouling Indices 9.2.2.3 Summary of Colloidal Fouling Indices 9.2.3 Natural Organic Material (NOM) 9.2.4 Other Organics 9.2.5 Other Foulants: Cationic Coagulants and Surfactants, and Silicone-Based Antifoams 9.2.6 Metals: Aluminum, Iron, Manganese, and Sulfur 9.2.6.1 Aluminum 9.2.6.2 Iron and Manganese 9.2.6.3 Hydrogen Sulfide 9.3 Effects of Fouling on Membrane Performance 9.3.1 Effects of Inorganic Foulants 9.3.1.1 Fouling with Larger Settleable and Supra-Colloidal Solids 9.3.1.2 Cake Layer Surface Fouling with Colloids 9.3.1.3 Feed Channel Fouling 9.3.1.4 Summary of Fouling Effects of Inorganic Particulates and Colloids 9.3.2 Effects of NOM and Other Organics 9.3.2.1 Effects of NOM—Humic Acids 9.3.2.2 Effects of Hydrocarbons 9.3.2.3 Effects of Cationic Coagulants and Surfactants 9.3.2.4 Summary of the Effects of Organic Surfactant and Antifoam Fouling on Membrane Performance 9.4 Pretreatment to Minimize Membrane Fouling 9.4.1 Primary Pretreatment—Clarification for Colloids and Organics (NOM) Removal 9.4.1.1 Coagulation 9.4.1.2 Flocculation 9.4.2 Pressure Filtration: Particles, SDI15, and Organics Removal 9.4.2.1 Multimedia Pressure Filters: Suspended Solids Removal 9.4.2.2 Catalytic Filters: Soluble Iron, Manganese, and Hydrogen Sulfide Removal 9.4.2.3 Carbon Filters: TOC Removal 9.4.2.4 Walnut Shell Filters: Hydrocarbon Oil Removal 9.4.2.5 Cartridge Filters: What is Their Purpose? 9.4.3 Membrane Filtration Turbidity, SDI15, and Metal Hydroxide Removal 9.4.3.1 Membrane Materials and Elements 9.4.3.2 Membrane Filtration Operations—Polymeric Membranes 9.4.3.3 Membrane Filtration as Pretreatment for RO 9.4.4 Nanofiltration (NF): Organics and Color Removal 9.5 Feed Water Quality Guidelines to Minimize Membrane Fouling Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 10 RO Membrane Biofouling 10.1 What is RO Membrane Biofouling? 10.2 Factors Affecting Membrane Biofouling 10.2.1 Polyamide RO Membrane Characteristics 10.2.1.1 Membrane Surface Roughness 10.2.1.2 Surface Charge and Zeta Potential 10.2.1.3 Membrane Hydrophilicity 10.2.2 Feed Water Matrix 10.2.2.1 Concentration of Microorganisms and Nutrients 10.2.2.2 Feed Water Ionic Strength and pH 10.2.2.3 Pretreatment Antiscalants 10.2.2.4 Feed Water Organic Concentration and Fouling 10.2.3 RO System Hydrodynamics 10.3 Effects of Biofouling on Membrane Performance 10.3.1 Scale Formation 10.3.2 Hydrodynamic Effects on Performance 10.4 Measurement of Biofouling 10.4.1 Predictive Techniques 10.4.1.1 Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC) 10.4.1.2 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and the Biofilm Formation Rate (BFR) 10.4.2 Plate Counts 10.4.2.1 Heterotrophic Plate Counts (HPC) 10.4.2.2 Total Direct Counts (TDC) 10.5 Mitigation Techniques 10.5.1 Pretreatment 10.5.1.1 Reduction of Feed Water Nutrients and Microorganisms 10.5.2 Disinfection 10.5.2.1 Physiochemical Disinfection Method—Ultraviolet (UV) Light 10.5.2.2 Chemical Disinfection—Oxidizing Biocides 10.5.2.3 Chemical Disinfection—Non-Oxidizing Biocide 10.5.2.4 Biocides Not Recommended for Use with Polyamide RO Membranes 10.5.2.5 Chemical Disinfection—Prospective Biocides for RO 10.5.3 Membrane Cleaning for Biofouling Removal 10.5.4 Membrane “Sterilization” 10.5.5 Biocide Flushing 10.6 Biofouling and Mitigation Summary Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 11 Membrane Degradation 11.1 Chemical Degradation 11.1.1 Polyamide Layer Degradation—Oxidation 11.1.1.1 Chlorine 11.1.1.2 Chloramine 11.1.1.3 Chlorine Dioxide 11.1.2 Polysulfone Support Layer Degradation 11.1.3 Polyester Fabric Degradation—Hydrolysis 11.1.4 Prevention of Chemical Damage 11.1.4.1 Removal of Oxidizers 11.1.4.2 Protection of Membrane Support Layers 11.2 Mechanical Damage 11.2.1 Physical Membrane Damage Due to Abrasion 11.2.2 Physical Membrane Damage Resulting from Operational Factors Symbols Nomenclature References Section IV: System Monitoring, Normalization, and Troubleshooting Chapter 12 Data Collection and Normalization 12.1 Data Collection 12.2 Data Normalization Symbols Subscripts Nomenclature References Chapter 13 Membrane Issues and Troubleshooting 13.1 Observed Performance Issues 13.1.1 High Permeate Solute Concentration 13.1.1.1 Increase in Feed Water Concentration of Ions 13.1.1.2 Hardness Scaling 13.1.1.3 Membrane Damage 13.1.1.4 Temperature Increase/Pressure Decrease 13.1.1.5 System Operations and Mechanical Issues 13.1.2 Changes in Permeate Flow 13.1.3 Changes in Feed Pressure 13.1.4 High Differential Pressure 13.2 Common Causes of Performance Failures 13.2.1 Mechanical Failures 13.2.2 RO Equipment Design 13.2.3 Operational Problems 13.2.4 Feed Water Quality Issues 13.2.5 Membrane Issues 13.3 Troubleshooting Techniques 13.3.1 Mechanical Inspection 13.3.2 Cartridge Filter Inspection 13.3.3 Water Analyses 13.3.4 RO Projections 13.3.5 Profiling and Probing 13.3.5.1 Profiling 13.3.5.2 Probing 13.3.6 Normalized Data Analysis 13.3.7 Autopsy 13.3.7.1 Visual Inspection—External 13.3.7.2 Visual Inspection—Internal Symbols Nomenclature References Section V: Off-Line Activities: Membrane Cleaning, Flushing, and Layup Chapter 14 Membrane Cleaning 14.1 When to Clean 14.2 Cleaning Chemicals 14.2.1 High pH Cleaning 14.2.2 Low pH Cleaning 14.3 Cleaning Equipment Design 14.3.1 Design of the RO Skid for Effective Cleaning 14.3.2 Design of the Cleaning Skid 14.3.2.1 Cleaning Tank 14.3.2.2 Cartridge Filters 14.3.2.3 Cleaning Pump 14.4 Cleaning Techniques 14.4.1 Conventional Cleaning 14.4.2 Two-Phase Cleaning 14.4.3 Reverse Cleaning 14.4.4 Preventative Cleaning 14.4.4.1 Extrapolative Preventative Cleaning 14.4.4.2 Direct-Osmosis High-Salinity (DO-HS) On-Line Cleaning Technique 14.5 Determining the Efficacy of Cleaning 14.6 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Versus Offsite Cleaning 14.6.1 CIP 14.6.2 Off-Site Cleaning 14.7 Membrane Disinfection 14.7.1 Hydrogen Peroxide/Peroxyacetic Acid 14.7.2 Non-Oxidizing Biocides 14.7.2.1 DBNPA 14.7.2.2 Isothiazolones—CMIT/MIT 14.7.2.3 Other Non-Oxidizing Biocides Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 15 Controlling Off-Line Membrane Deposition via Flushing and Layup 15.1 Membrane Flushing 15.1.1 End of Service Flush 15.1.2 Stand-By Flush 15.1.3 Return to Service Flush 15.2 Membrane Layup 15.2.1 Short-Term Layup 15.2.2 Long-Term Layup 15.2.2.1 Sodium Metabisulfite (SMBS) 15.2.2.2 DBNPA 15.2.2.3 CMIT/MIT 15.3 Membrane Preservation Nomenclature References Section VI: Sustainability and Future Prospects Chapter 16 Concentrate Management 16.1 Discharge 16.1.1 Discharge to Surface Waters 16.1.2 Discharge to Sewer 16.1.3 Discharge to On-Site Treatment Facility 16.1.4 Deep Well Injection 16.2 Land Application 16.2.1 Irrigation 16.2.2 Evaporation Ponds 16.3 Reuse 16.3.1 Direct Reuse 16.3.1.1 Wash Down Systems 16.3.1.2 Cooling Tower Make-Up 16.3.2 Treated Concentrate for Reuse—Brine Minimization 16.3.2.1 Recovery RO Systems 16.3.2.2 Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) 16.4 Off-Site Disposal 16.5 Emerging Technologies for Concentrate Management 16.5.1 Membrane Distillation (MD) 16.5.2 Forward Osmosis (FO) Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 17 High-Recovery Reverse Osmosis 17.1 Single-Step High Recovery Processes 17.1.1 Closed Circuit RO (CCRO) 17.1.1.1 Managing Scale Formation 17.1.1.2 Managing Membrane Fouling 17.1.1.3 Energy Savings 17.1.2 Osmotically-Assisted RO (OARO) 17.1.3 Pulse Flow RO (PFROTM) 17.1.4 Feed Flow Reversal (FFR) 17.2 Enhanced High Recovery Processes with Interstage Solute Precipitation 17.2.1 Intermediate Concentrate Demineralization (ICD) 17.2.2 Accelerated Seeded Precipitation (ASP) 17.3 Multi-Step High Recovery Membrane Processes 17.3.1 Toward Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) 17.3.2 Challenging Waters and Wastewaters 17.3.3 Commercialized Multi-Step, High-Recovery RO Processes 17.3.3.1 Optimized Pretreatment and Unique Separation (OPUS®) 17.3.3.2 High Efficiency Reverse Osmosis (HERO®) Symbols Nomenclature References Chapter 18 New and Alternative Membrane Materials For Sustainability 18.1 Specific Requirements to Improve Sustainability 18.1.1 Membrane Performance 18.1.2 Fouling Resistance 18.1.3 Chlorine (Oxidant) Tolerance 18.1.4 Energy-Water Nexus 18.2 Membrane Materials to Meet RO Demineralization Challenges 18.2.1 Modification of Polyamide Interfacial Polymerization (IP) Preparation Chemistries and Techniques 18.2.2 Membrane Surface Modifications 18.2.3 Nanotechnology and Nanoparticle Membranes 18.2.3.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Nanocomposite Membranes 18.2.3.2 Thin Film Nanoparticle (TFN) Membranes 18.2.4 Graphene Oxide (GO)-Based Membranes 18.2.5 Biomimetic Aquaporin Membranes Symbols Nomenclature References Index EULA