Sandwich Structural Composites : Theory and Practice

Sandwich Structural Composites: Theory and Practice offers a comprehensive coverage of sandwich structural composites. It describes the structure, properties, characterization, and testing of raw materials. In addition, it discusses design and process methods, applications and damage assessments of sandwich structural composites. The book: Offers a review of current sandwich composite lamination processes and manufacturing methods Introduces raw materials, including core materials, skin reinforcements, resin substrates and adhesives Discusses sandwich structure characterization, finite element analysis of the structures, and product design and optimization Describes benefits other than structural, including acoustic, thermal, and fire Details applications in various industries, including aerospace, wind energy, marine ships, recreational boats and vehicles, sport equipment, building construction, and extreme temperature applications The book will be of benefit to industrial practitioners, researchers, academic faculty, and advanced students in materials and mechanical engineering and related disciplines looking to advance their understanding of these increasingly important materials. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface Biographies Introduction Chapter 1 Sandwich Structural Core Materials and Properties 1.1 Rigid Structural Plastic Foams 1.1.1 Requirements of Foam Core Materials 1.1.2 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Foam 1.1.3 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Foam 1.1.4 Polyurethane (PUR) Foam 1.1.5 Poly (Styrene-co-Acrylonitrile) (SAN) Foam 1.1.6 Polymethacrylimide (PMI) Foam 1.1.7 Polyetherimide (PEI) and Polyethersulfone (PES) Foam 1.1.8 Syntactic Foam Core 1.2 Wood-Based Core Materials 1.2.1 Balsa Wood-Based Core Material 1.2.1.1 Balsa Tree 1.2.1.2 Milling, Kiln Dry, and Make Block 1.2.1.3 Microstructure 1.2.1.4 Mechanical Properties of Balsa Lumber 1.2.1.5 Mechanical Properties of Lumber-Based End-Grain Core 1.2.1.6 Homologation and Density Variation 1.2.1.7 Humidity, Moisture, and Its Effect on Mechanical Properties 1.2.1.8 Miscellaneous Properties 1.2.1.9 Product and Format 1.2.1.10 Applications 1.2.2 Cork-Based Sandwich Core 1.2.2.1 Plantation and Harvest 1.2.2.2 Mechanical Properties 1.2.2.2 Other Properties and Applications 1.3 Honeycomb Cores 1.3.1 Thermoplastics Honeycombs 1.3.2 Metal Honeycombs 1.3.3 Honeycombs Made from Composite Materials 1.3.4 Paperboard Honeycombs 1.4 Special Foam Cores 1.4.1 Metallic Foams 1.4.2 Ceramic Foams 1.4.3 Carbon Foams 1.5 Other Core Materials 1.5.1 Corrugated and Lattice Truss Cores 1.5.1.1 Corrugated Core 1.5.1.2 Lattice Truss Core 1.5.2 3D Fabric Woven Cores 1.5.3 Core Mats 1.6 Sheet Formats of Core Materials References Chapter 2 Special Properties and Characterization Methods of Core Materials 2.1 Specialties of Sandwich Core Materials 2.2 Flatwise Compressive Properties 2.3 Flatwise Tensile Properties 2.4 Plate Shear Properties 2.5 Other Important Properties References Chapter 3 Face Sheet Materials for Sandwich Composites 3.1 Metal, Plastics, and Plywood Face Sheet Materials 3.1.1 Metallic Face Sheet Materials 3.1.1.1 Steel 3.1.1.2 Aluminum 3.1.1.3 Magnesium 3.1.1.4 Titanium 3.1.1.5 Miscellaneous Alloys 3.1.2 Plastics 3.1.2.1 Thermoplastics 3.1.2.2 Commodity Plastics (PE, PP, PET, and PVC) 3.1.2.3 Engineered Thermoplastics (PA6, PEI, PPS, etc.) 3.1.2.4 High-Performance Thermoplastics (PAEK, PEEK, and PI) 3.1.3 Wood 3.2 Reinforcement Fiber Materials for Composite Face Sheets 3.2.1 Glass and Basalt Fibers 3.2.1.1 E-Glass and ECR-Glass 3.2.1.2 H-Glass and R-Glass 3.2.1.3 Basalt 3.2.1.4 S-Glass 3.2.1.5 Quartz (Silica) 3.2.1.6 A-Glass, C-Glass, and AR-Glass 3.2.2 Carbon Fibers 3.2.2.1 PAN-Based Carbon 3.2.2.2 Pitch-Based Carbon 3.2.3 Natural Fibers 3.2.3.1 Bast 3.2.3.2 Leaf 3.2.4 Synthetic Fibers 3.2.4.1 Para-Aramid 3.2.4.2 High-Modulus Polypropylene 3.2.4.3 UHMWPE, PBO, and LCP 3.2.5 Boron and Ceramic Fibers 3.2.5.1 Boron 3.2.5.2 SiC and Alumina 3.2.6 Architectural Forms of Reinforcement Materials 3.3 Plastic Matrix Materials for Composite Face Sheets 3.3.1 Unsaturated Polyester and Vinyl Ester Resin 3.3.1.1 Unsaturated Polyester (UPR) 3.3.1.2 Vinyl Esters 3.3.2 Epoxy Resin 3.3.3 Phenolic Resin 3.3.4 Polyurethane Resin 3.3.5 High-Temperature Application Resins 3.3.6 Thermoplastic Matrix 3.4 Composite Face Sheet Material Properties and Characterization 3.4.1 Unidirectional Laminae 3.4.2 Biaxial Laminates 3.4.3 Quasi-Isotropic Laminates 3.4.4 Test Methods for Laminated Composite Face Sheets 3.4.4.1 Tensile Strength and Modulus 3.4.4.2 Compressive Strength and Modulus 3.4.4.3 In-Plane Shear Strength and Modulus 3.4.4.4 Flexural Strength and Modulus in Sandwich 3.4.4.5 Interlaminar Shear Strength 3.4.4.6 Damage Tolerance and Impact Properties References Chapter 4 Laminating Processes of Thermoset Sandwich Composites 4.1 Dry Laminating Process 4.1.1 Facing Materials 4.1.2 Adhesives 4.1.3 Laminating Processes 4.2 Wet Laminating Process 4.2.1 Hand Layup Process 4.2.2 Spray Layup Lamination 4.2.3 Prepreg Lamination, Press or Autoclave Curing 4.2.4 Closed Mold Lamination 4.2.4.1 Vacuum Infusion 4.2.4.2 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) 4.2.5 Pultrusion 4.2.6 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing References Chapter 5 All-Thermoplastic Sandwich Composites 5.1 Concept and Specialties 5.2 Thermoplastic Core Materials 5.3 Thermoplastic Face Materials 5.4 Sandwich Structure Process Methods 5.4.1 Compression Molding 5.4.2 Continuous Laminating – Double Belt and Pultrusion 5.4.3 In-situ Core Foaming 5.4.4 Diaphragm Forming 5.4.5 Manufacturing of 3D Thermoplastic Sandwiches by One-Step Forming 5.5 Postprocessing and Recycling References Chapter 6 Characterizations of Sandwich Structures 6.1 Face to Core Bonding Strength Tests 6.1.1 Drum Peel Test 6.1.2 Flatwise Tensile Test 6.1.3 Other Tests for Evaluating Strength of Skin and Core Bonding 6.2 Flexural Strength and Bending Stiffness Evaluations 6.2.1 Core Shear Properties of Sandwich Constructions by Beam Flexure Test 6.2.2 Facing Properties of Sandwich Constructions by Long-Beam Flexural Test 6.2.3 Test for Determining Sandwich Beam Flexural and Shear Stiffness 6.3 Flatwise and Edgewise Compressive Test 6.3.1 Flatwise Compressive Test 6.3.2 Edgewise Compressive Strength 6.4 Concentrated Load and Wave Impact Tests 6.4.1 Concentrated Load Impact Tests 6.4.2 Wave Impact Tests 6.4.3 Air and Water Blast Tests by Shock Tubes 6.4.4 Air and Water Blast Tests by Full-Scale Explosion 6.5 Dynamic Fatigue Evaluation 6.5.1 Flexural Fatigue Tests 6.5.2 Other Fatigue Tests 6.5.2.1 Flatwise Compressive Fatigue Test 6.5.2.2 Edgewise Compression – Compression Fatigue Test 6.5.2.3 Two-Dimensional Simply Supported Distributed Load Flexural Static and Fatigue Test 6.6 Fracture Toughness Test 6.7 Thermal Mechanical Tests 6.8 Nondestructive Tests 6.8.1 Visual Inspection 6.8.2 Tap Tests 6.8.3 Pitch-Catch Swept Method 6.8.4 Ultrasonic Tests 6.8.5 Shearography Test 6.8.6 Infrared Thermography Method 6.8.7 Industrial-Scale Inspection References Chapter 7 Sandwich Structure Design and Mechanical Property Analysis 7.1 Structure and Load Distribution of Sandwich Composites 7.1.1 Rigidity, Stress, and Deflection of a Sandwich Beam Subjected to Bending Moment 7.1.1.1 Flexural Rigidity and Shear Rigidity 7.1.1.2 Face Tensile/Compressive Stress 7.1.1.3 Core Shear Stress 7.1.1.4 Deflection of Sandwich Beam Subjected to Bending Moment and Shear Force Caused by Bending 7.1.2 Stress, Strain, and Rigidity in a Sandwich Beam Subjected to Tension or Compression 7.2 Strength and Deflection of Simple Sandwich Elements at Different Supports and Loads 7.3 Edgewise Damage Prediction and Prevention 7.3.1 General Buckling 7.3.2 Local Buckling in the Sandwich 7.4 Design Principles of a Simple Sandwich Element 7.4.1 Design for Strength of Facings and Core 7.4.2 Design for Rigidity 7.4.3 Design for Minimum Weight 7.4.3.1 Minimum Weight for Given Stiffness 7.4.3.2 Minimum Weight for Given Strength 7.4.4 Other Design Considerations 7.5 Design Procedure from Simple Element to Large Complex Structure 7.5.1 Determine Thicknesses of Simple Sandwich Element 7.5.2 Design Routine of Simple Sandwich Element 7.5.3 Scaling Up to Large Complex Structure 7.5.3.1 Multilevel Scaling 7.5.3.2 Similarity Theory Scaling 7.6 Effects of Core Formats, Process Methods, and Application Conditions on Design Parameters 7.6.1 Influence of the Core Formats on Design Parameters 7.6.2 Influence of Laminating Methods on Design Parameters 7.6.3 Influence of Product Application Conditions on Design Parameters 7.7 Principles and Examples of Using Hybrid Cores, Regional Reinforcements, Transitions, and Connection Elements 7.7.1 Use Intelligent Combinations of Hybrid Core Materials for a Large Complex Product 7.7.2 Regional (Local) Reinforcements 7.7.3 Fasteners and Connections 7.7.3.1 Connect to Solid Structure 7.7.3.2 Straight Connect Sandwich Structures 7.7.3.3 Right Angle Connection 7.7.3.4 T-Joint Connection 7.7.3.5 Fasten Sandwich Panel to Solid Structural Component References Chapter 8 Sandwich Composite Structure Modeling by Finite Element Method 8.1 Basics on Finite Element Analysis 8.1.1 Purpose 8.1.2 General Steps and Considerations of Performing Finite Element Analysis When Using Commercial Software 8.2 Skin/Face Sheet Modeling: Material Models and Parameter Characterization 8.2.1 Hashin Damage Model and Parameter Characterization 8.3 Continuous Surface Core Modeling: Material Models and Parameter Characterization 8.3.1 Crushable Foam Material Model and Parameter Characterization 8.3.2 J2 Elastoplasticity Material Model 8.3.3 End-Grain Balsa Wood Material Model and Parameter Characterization 8.4 Discontinuous (Honeycomb, Truss) Core Modeling Approaches 8.5 Adhesive and Debonding/Delamination Modeling Approaches 8.5.1 Cohesive Zone Method 8.5.2 Surface Separation Approach 8.5.3 Connector Element Approach 8.6 Foam Core Sandwich Composite Modeling Example: Debonding of Foam Core Sandwich Composite Beam 8.7 Honeycomb Core Sandwich Composite Modeling Example: Nonlinear Response of Honeycomb Sandwich Composite Beam Subject to Four-Point Bending 8.8 Optimization of Sandwich Composite Design Based on Finite Element Analysis 8.9 Fatigue Life Modeling of Sandwich Composite via Finite Element Analysis 8.9.1 The S-N Curve Method for Sandwich Composites Appendix: Octave/Matlab code for transferring foam strengths for crushable foam material model in ABAQUS References Chapter 9 Application of Sandwich Structural Composites 9.1 Marine Industry 9.1.1 Recreational Boat Building 9.1.2 Military Ship Constructions 9.1.3 Commercial Marine Industry 9.2 Wind Energy Industry 9.3 Airplane and Aerospace 9.3.1 Applications in Airplanes 9.3.2 Applications in Helicopters 9.3.3 Applications in Space 9.3.4 Future of Aeronautic Sandwich Structures 9.4 Transportation 9.4.1 Rail Car Application 9.4.2 Bus Body Application 9.4.3 Truck and Semitrailer Body Application 9.4.4 Automotive Industry 9.5 Building and Civil Industries 9.5.1 Housing and Building Construction 9.5.2 Bridge Building 9.5.3 Bridge and Dock Protective Systems 9.5.4 Challenges and Issues 9.6 Miscellaneous 9.6.1 Sandwich Structure for Radome Construction 9.6.2 Medical Equipment 9.6.3 Acoustic Barriers 9.6.3.1 Sound Transmission through Sandwich Structures 9.6.3.2 Sound Transmission Reduction by Adding a Layer of Membrane-Type Acoustic Meta-Materials 9.6.3.3 Reduce the Sound Transmission by Acoustic Separation of the Layers of Sandwich 9.6.3.4 Introduce Air or Sound Insolation Gap to Core or between Panels 9.6.3.5 Honeycomb Sandwich Panels with Micro-perforated Facings 9.6.3.6 Use Damping Core and Perforated Facing 9.6.4 Sports and Leisure 9.6.4.1 Sporting Boards on the Water 9.6.4.2 3D Printing Sport Boards 9.6.4.3 Skis and Snowboard 9.6.4.4 Sandwich Construction for Making Canoes, Kayaks and Paddleboards References Chapter 10 Sandwich Composite Damage Assessment and Repairing 10.1 Detection and Estimation of Defects and Damages 10.1.1 Personal and Visual Inspections 10.1.2 Inspect by Instruments 10.1.3 Damage Estimation 10.2 Different Type of Damages 10.2.1 General Clarifications of the Damages 10.2.2 Detail Damages of Special Products 10.3 Repairing Procedures and Methods 10.3.1 Repair Plan Design and Option Selection 10.3.2 Damage Cleaning 10.3.3 Repairing Materials and Preparation 10.3.4 General Repair Processes 10.3.4.1 Repair of Type A Damage 10.3.4.2 Repair of Type B Damage 10.3.4.3 Repair of Type C Damage 10.3.5 Special Repair Processes 10.3.5.1 Surface Repair 10.3.5.2 Brief or Short-Term Repair 10.3.5.3 Structural Repair 10.3.5.4 Vacuum Bagging Pressure Curing 10.3.5.5 Repair of Structure Face with Cracks or Surface Defects 10.3.5.6 Re-bonding Delaminated Skin to a Core by Resin Injection 10.3.5.7 Vacuum Infusion Bag Pressure Curing Repair Technology 10.3.5.8 Temperature Control During Repair Curing 10.4 Quality Inspection During and After Repairing References Index This book offers comprehensive coverage of sandwich structural composites. It describes structure, properties, characterization, and testing of raw materials. In addition, it discusses design and process methods and applications of sandwich structural composites. composite;,lamination;,extreme,temperature,materials;,aerospace,materials;,construction,materials;,automotive,materials;,composite,materials composite,lamination,extreme temperature materials,aerospace materials,construction materials,automotive materials,composite materials "This book offers comprehensive coverage sandwich structural composites. It describes structure, properties, characterization, and testing of raw materials. In addition, it discusses design and process methods and applications of sandwich structural composites. The book will be of benefit to industrial practitioners, researchers, academic faculty, and advanced students looking to advance their understanding of these increasingly important materials"-- Provided by publisher.