Soft X-Ray Optics

This text describes optics mainly in the 10 to 500 angstrom wavelength region. These wavelengths are 50 to 100 times shorter than those for visible light and 50 to 100 times longer than the wavelengths of medical x rays or x-ray diffraction from natural crystals. There have been substantial advances during the last 20 years, which one can see as an extension of optical technology to shorter wavelengths or as an extension of x-ray diffraction to longer wavelengths. Artificial diffracting structures like zone plates and multilayer mirrors are replacing the natural crystals of x-ray diffraction. Some of these structures can now be fabricated to have diffraction-limited resolution. The new possibilities are described in a simple, tutorial way. � Read more... Abstract: This text describes optics mainly in the 10 to 500 angstrom wavelength region. These wavelengths are 50 to 100 times shorter than those for visible light and 50 to 100 times longer than the wavelengths of medical x rays or x-ray diffraction from natural crystals. There have been substantial advances during the last 20 years, which one can see as an extension of optical technology to shorter wavelengths or as an extension of x-ray diffraction to longer wavelengths. Artificial diffracting structures like zone plates and multilayer mirrors are replacing the natural crystals of x-ray diffraction. Some of these structures can now be fabricated to have diffraction-limited resolution. The new possibilities are described in a simple, tutorial way This Text Describes Optics Mainly In The 10 To 500 Angstrom Wavelength Region. These Wavelengths Are 50 To 100 Times Shorter Than Those For Visible Light And 50 To 100 Times Longer Than The Wavelengths Of Medical X Rays Or X-ray Diffraction From Natural Crystals. There Have Been Substantial Advances During The Last 20 Years, Which One Can See As An Extension Of Optical Technology To Shorter Wavelengths Or As An Extension Of X-ray Diffraction To Longer Wavelengths. Artificial Diffracting Structures Like Zone Plates And Multilayer Mirrors Are Replacing The Natural Crystals Of X-ray Diffraction. Some Of These Structures Can Now Be Fabricated To Have Diffraction-limited Resolution. The New Possibilities Are Described In A Simple, Tutorial Way. Preface -- 1. Introduction -- 1.1. References -- 2. Optical Constants -- 2.1. Refractive Index Of A Free Electron Gas -- 2.2. Data For Optical Constants -- 2.3. Neutron Optics -- 2.4. References -- 3. Reflection From A Single Boundary -- 3.1. Fresnel Equations -- 3.2. The Standing Wave Generated By A Reflector -- 3.3. Waveguides And Whispering Gallery Mirrors -- 3.4. A Simplified Description Of Reflection -- 3.5. References -- 4. Imaging Systems For X Rays -- 4.1. Reflecting Imaging Elements With Amplitude Addition -- 4.2. Reflecting Imaging Elements With Intensity Addition -- 4.3. Image Field For Reflectors. 4.3.1. Stepped Mirrors -- 4.4. X-ray Lenses -- 4.5. References -- 5. Information Capacity Of A Radiation Field -- 5.1. Modes, Coherence Conditions, Uncertainty Relations -- 5.2. Contrast Of Interference Fringes -- 5.3. Intensity Fluctuations -- 5.4. Photon Statistics -- 5.5. Image Reconstruction In Three Dimensions -- 5.6. Image Reconstruction In Two Dimensions -- 5.7. References -- 6. Zone Plates -- 6.1. Zone Plate Geometry -- 6.2. Wavelength Tuning Of Zone Plates -- 6.3. Zone Plate Efficiency -- 6.4. Zone Plate Fabrication -- 6.5. Generalized Zone Plate Structures -- 6.6. References -- 7. Interference In Thin Films: Theory -- 7.1. Rigorous Theories -- 7.2. Kinematical Theory (vector Model) And Fourier Transforms -- 7.3. Imperfect Boundaries -- 7.4. Superlattices -- 7.4.1. Reflection From Tilted Planes -- 7.5. Computer Programs -- 7.6. References. 8. Design Of Multilayer Structures -- 8.1. Standing Waves In A Coating -- 8.2. High-reflectivity -- 8.2.1. Mirrors With Increased Bandwidth -- 8.3. Fabry-perot Resonators And Waveguide Modes -- 8.4. Beamsplitters And Polarizers -- 8.5. Multilayer Coatings For Neutrons -- 8.6. References -- 9. Multilayer Fabrication -- 9.1. Deposition Methods -- 9.2. Material Selection -- 9.3. Performance Of Multilayer Systems -- 9.4. Substrates -- 9.5. References -- 10. Test Of Multilayer Structures -- 10.1 In-situ Monitoring -- 10.2 Soft X-ray Reflectivity -- 10.3 Hard X-ray Reflectivity -- 10.4 Scattering -- 10.5 Characterization By Microscopy -- 10.6 References -- 11. Windows And Filters -- 11.1. References -- 12. Applications Of Soft X-ray Optics -- 12.1. Spectroscopy -- 12.2. Multilayer Gratings -- 12.3. High-resolution Imaging -- 12.4. Astronomy -- 12.5. X-ray Microscopy -- 12.6. X-ray Lithography -- 12.7. References -- 13. Appendix -- 13.1. Conferences -- 13.2. Optical Constants Of Elements For A=1.54 A -- 13.3. Example For The Analysis Of Reflectivity Curves -- 13.4. References -- Index. Eberhard Spiller. Includes Bibliographical References And Index.