Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice

Front Matter 1 Preface -1 Preface to First Edition -1 Table of Contents -1 Introduction -1 Symbols -1 References -1 Author Index -1 Subject Index -1 Front Matter -1 Preface 4 Preface to First Edition -1 Table of Contents -1 References -1 Author Index -1 Subject Index -1 Front Matter -1 Preface -1 Preface to First Edition 5 Table of Contents -1 References -1 Author Index -1 Subject Index -1 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 Introduction 7 References -1 Author Index -1 Subject Index -1 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 Symbols 8 References -1 Author Index -1 Subject Index -1 Front Matter -1 Preface -1 Preface to First Edition -1 Table of Contents 14 Introduction -1 Symbols -1 Part I. Physical Properties of Soils -1 1. Index Properties of Soils -1 1.1 Practical Importance of Index Properties -1 1.2 Principal Types of Soils -1 1.3 Size and Shape of Soil Particles -1 1.4 Properties of Very Fine Soil Fractions -1 1.4.1 Mineralogical Composition -1 1.4.2 Characteristics of Principal Clay Minerals -1 1.4.3 Role of Isomorphic Substitution -1 1.4.4 Cation Exchange and Adsorbed Water -1 1.4.5 Fabric -1 1.4.6 Organic Soils -1 1.4.7 Practical Significance of Colloidal Properties -1 1.5 Mechanical Analysis of Soils -1 1.5.1 Methods of Mechanical Analysis -1 1.5.2 Abbreviated Representation of Grain-Size Characteristics -1 1.6 Soil Aggregate -1 1.6.1 Introduction -1 1.6.2 Texture, Structure, and Consistency -1 1.6.3 Porosity, Water Content, Unit Weight, and Density -1 1.7 Consistency of Fine-Grained Soils -1 1.7.1 Consistency and Sensitivity of Undisturbed Soils -1 1.7.2 Consistency of Remolded Soils -1 1.7.3 Plasticity Chart -1 1.8 Soil Classification -1 1.8.1 Practical Significance of Soil Classification -1 1.8.2 Classification Based on Grain Size -1 1.8.3 Unified Soil Classification System -1 1.9 Minimum Requirements for Adequate Soil Description -1 2. Soil Exploration -1 2.1 Purpose and Scope of Soil Exploration -1 2.1.1 Definition of Soil Exploration -1 2.1.2 Influence of Soil Conditions on Exploratory Program -1 2.1.3 Influence of Size of Project on Exploratory Program -1 2.1.4 Causes of Misjudgment of Subsoil Conditions -1 2.1.5 Observations during Construction -1 2.2 Methods of Soil Exploration -1 2.2.1 Principal Procedures -1 2.2.2 Boring -1 2.2.2.1 Methods of Drilling -1 2.2.2.2 Wash Borings -1 2.2.2.3 Rotary Drilling -1 2.2.2.4 Auger Borings -1 2.2.2.5 Hammer Drilling -1 2.2.2.6 Inspection Shafts -1 2.2.3 Sampling -1 2.2.3.1 Purpose -1 2.2.3.2 Split-spoon Sampling in Exploratory Drill Holes -1 2.2.3.3 Thin-walled Tube Samplers -1 2.2.3.4 Piston Samplers -1 2.2.3.5 Sampling Combined with Coring -1 2.2.3.6 Hand-carved Samples in Clay -1 2.2.3.7 Block Sampling in Bore Holes -1 2.2.3.8 Quality of Samples -1 2.2.3.9 Sampling in Sand -1 2.2.4 Subsurface Soundings -1 2.2.4.1 Purpose of Subsurface Soundings -1 2.2.4.2 Static Sounding Methods -1 2.2.4.3 Dynamic Methods -1 2.2.5 In Situ Tests -1 2.2.5.1 Purpose and Types -1 2.2.5.2 Vane Tests -1 2.2.5.3 Pressuremeter -1 2.2.6 Groundwater Investigations -1 2.2.6.1 Observation Wells -1 2.2.6.2 Piezometers -1 2.2.7 Geophysical Methods -1 2.3 Program for Subsoil Exploration -1 2.3.1 Type and Sequence of Operations -1 2.3.2 Geological Considerations -1 2.3.3 Spacing and Depth of Exploratory Borings -1 2.3.4 Relative Density of Sand Strata -1 2.3.5 Permeability of Sand Strata -1 2.3.6 Shearing Resistance of Saturated Clays -1 2.3.7 Compressibility of Clay Strata -1 2.3.8 Summary of Procedures in Subsoil Reconnaissance -1 2.3.9 Discrepancies between Reality and Assumptions Based on Subsoil Reconnaissance -1 3. Hydraulic and Mechanical Properties of Soils -1 3.1 Significance of Hydraulic and Mechanical Properties of Soils -1 3.2 Permeability of Soils -1 3.2.1 Introduction -1 3.2.2 Definitions and Darcy's Flow Equation -1 3.2.3 Permeability of Granular Soils -1 3.2.4 Permeability of Soft Clays -1 3.2.5 Permeability of Sand-Clay Mixtures -1 3.2.6 Laboratory Permeability Tests -1 3.2.7 In Situ Permeability Tests -1 3.2.8 Permeability of Stratified Masses of Soil -1 3.2.9 Particle Migration and Erosion -1 3.3 Effective Stress, Porewater Pressure, and Critical Hydraulic Gradient -1 3.3.1 Effective Stress -1 3.3.2 Mechanism of Effective Stress Transfer -1 3.3.3 Effective Vertical Stress -1 3.3.4 Critical Hydraulic Gradient -1 3.3.5 Porewater Pressures Resulting from Undrained Changes in State of Stress -1 3.3.5.1 Porewater Pressures Resulting from Changes in Equal All-Around Total Stress -1 3.3.5.2 Porewater Pressures Resulting from Application of Shear Stresses -1 3.3.6 Negative Pore Pressure in Soils -1 3.3.6.1 Capillarity and Suction -1 3.3.6.2 Drainage by Gravity -1 3.3.6.3 Drainage by Desiccation -1 3.3.6.4 Shrinking, Swelling, and Slaking -1 3.3.7 Electro-osmosis -1 3.3.8 Frost Heave -1 3.4 Compressibility of Confined Layers of Soil -1 3.4.1 Introduction -1 3.4.2 One-Dimensional Compression -1 3.4.3 Void Ratio-Effective Stress Relationship -1 3.4.4 Preconsolidation Pressure -1 3.4.5 Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest -1 3.4.6 Magnitude of Settlement -1 3.4.7 Settlement During Secondary Consolidation Stage -1 3.4.8 Rate of One-Dimensional Consolidation -1 3.4.9 Oedometer Test -1 3.4.10 Heave of Expansive Soils -1 3.5 Stress, Strain, and Failure in Soils -1 3.5.1 Introduction -1 3.5.2 Triaxial Apparatus and Procedure -1 3.5.3 Other Laboratory Shear Tests -1 3.5.3.1 Unconfined Compression Test -1 3.5.3.2 Direct Shear Test -1 3.5.3.3 Direct Simple Shear Test -1 3.5.3.4 Torsional Ring-Shear Test -1 3.5.3.5 Plane Strain Triaxial Test -1 3.5.4 Mohr's Rupture Diagram and Coulomb's Failure Equation -1 3.5.5 Relations Among Shear Stress, Shear Strain, and Time -1 3.5.5.1 Hyperbolic Stress-Strain Equation -1 3.5.5.2 Creep Equations -1 3.6 Behavior of Soils in Shear -1 3.6.1 Relation of Mineralogy to Shear Strength -1 3.6.2 Volumetric Response of Soils During Shear -1 3.6.2.1 Examples of Drained Behavior -1 3.6.2.2 Examples of Undrained Behavior -1 3.6.3 Stress Path to Failure -1 3.7 Drained Shear Strength -1 3.7.1 Drained Shear Strength of Granular Soils -1 3.7.2 Drained Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils -1 3.7.2.1 Intact Shear Strength -1 3.7.2.2 Fully Softened Shear Strength -1 3.7.2.3 Residual Shear Strength -1 3.8 Undrained Shear Strength of Soils -1 3.8.1 Undrained Failure -1 3.8.2 Yielding of Soil Structure -1 3.8.3 Undrained Shear Strength in Terms of Effective Stress at Failure -1 3.8.4 Measurement of Undrained Shear Strength -1 3.8.5 Mobilized Field Strength Based on In Situ Vane Experience -1 3.8.6 Undrained Shear Strength from Laboratory Shear Tests -1 3.8.7 Unconfined Compression Test -1 3.8.8 Undrained Shear Strength of Stiff Fissured Clays -1 3.8.9 Liquefaction of Saturated Loose Sands -1 3.8.9.1 Introduction -1 3.8.9.2 Soils Most Susceptible to Liquefaction -1 3.8.9.3 Liquefaction Behavior -1 3.8.9.4 Events Triggering Liquefaction -1 3.8.9.5 Cyclic Yield Strength from Laboratory Tests -1 3.8.9.6 Cyclic Yield Strength from in Situ Penetration Tests -1 3.8.9.7 Undrained Critical Shear Strength -1 3.9 Effect of Vibrations on Soils -1 Part II. Theoretical Soil Mechanics -1 4. Hydraulics of Soils -1 4.1 Scope of Hydraulic Problems -1 4.2 Seepage Computations -1 4.2.1 Hydrodynamic Equations -1 4.2.2 One-Dimensional Steady-State Seepage -1 4.2.3 Two-Dimensional Steady-State Seepage -1 4.2.4 Computation of Seepage and Seepage Pressure -1 4.2.5 Construction of Flow Net -1 4.2.6 Seepage through Soils with Transverse Isotropy -1 4.2.7 Seepage toward Single Well -1 4.3 Mechanics of Piping -1 4.3.1 Definition of Piping -1 4.3.2 Mechanics of Piping due to Heave -1 4.3.3 Uplift Compensation by Loaded Filters -1 4.4 Theory of Consolidation -1 4.4.1 Process of Consolidation -1 4.4.2 Progress of Consolidation -1 4.4.3 Computation of Rate of Consolidation -1 4.4.4 Other Initial and Boundary Conditions -1 4.4.5 Consolidation with Vertical Drains -1 4.4.6 Limitations of the Theory of Consolidation -1 4.4.7 Application of a Consolidation Theory to Field Situations -1 4.4.8 Theory of Expansion -1 5. Plastic Equilibrium in Soils -1 5.1 Fundamental Assumptions -1 5.2 States of Plastic Equilibrium -1 5.2.1 Fundamental Concepts -1 5.2.2 Local States of Plastic Equilibrium -1 5.3 Rankine's Earth-Pressure Theory -1 5.3.1 Earth Pressure against Retaining Walls -1 5.3.2 Active Earth Pressure of Cohesionless Soil against Smooth Vertical Walls -1 5.3.3 Active Earth Pressure of Partly Submerged Sand Supporting a Uniform Surcharge -1 5.3.4 Active Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soils against Smooth Vertical Surfaces -1 5.3.5 Passive Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soils in Contact with Smooth Vertical Surfaces -1 5.4 Influence of Wall Friction on the Shape of the Surface of Sliding -1 5.5 Coulomb's Theory of Active Earth Pressure Against Retaining Walls -1 5.5.1 Introduction -1 5.5.2 Coulomb's Theory -1 5.5.3 Culmann's Graphical Construction -1 5.5.4 Earth Pressure Due to Line Load -1 5.6 Point of Application of Earth Pressure -1 5.7 Passive Earth Pressure Against Rough Contact Faces -1 5.7.1 Definition -1 5.7.2 Coulomb's Theory of the Passive Earth Pressure of Sand -1 5.7.3 Passive Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soils -1 5.8 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Footings -1 5.8.1 Fundamental Assumptions -1 5.8.2 States of Plastic Equilibrium Beneath Shallow Continuous Footings -1 5.8.3 Approximate Methods for Computing the Bearing Capacity of Continuous Footings -1 5.8.4 Bearing Capacity of Footings of Finite Length -1 5.9 Bearing Capacity of Piers and Piles -1 5.9.1 Definitions -1 5.9.2 Bearing Capacity of Cylindrical Piers -1 5.9.3 Bearing Capacity of Piles -1 5.9.3.1 Pile Formulas -1 5.9.3.2 Transmission of Stresses during Driving -1 5.10 Stability of Slopes -1 5.10.1 Introduction -1 5.10.2 Slopes on Dry Cohesionless Sand -1 5.10.3 General Character of Slides in Homogeneous Cohesive Soil -1 5.10.4 Purpose of Stability Computations -1 5.10.5 Computation of Shearing Resistance from Slide Data -1 5.10.6 Procedure for Investigating Stability of Slopes -1 5.10.7 Slope Failures under Undrained Conditions -1 5.10.8 Slopes on Soils with Cohesion and Internal Friction -1 5.10.9 Irregular Slopes on Nonuniform Soils, Circular Surface of Sliding -1 5.10.10 Composite Surface of Sliding -1 5.11 Stability of Earth Dams -1 5.11.1 Critical States for Design -1 5.11.2 Evaluation of Porewater Pressures in Critical Design States -1 5.11.3 Stability Computations -1 5.11.4 Sources of Error in Effective Stress Stability Analyses -1 5.11.5 Seismic Stability of Earth Dams -1 5.11.5.1 Introduction -1 5.11.5.2 Seismic Shaking with Non-Degrading Shear Strength -1 5.11.5.3 Seismic Shaking with Degrading Shear Strength -1 5.12 Earth Pressure Against Supports in Cuts -1 5.12.1 Deformation Conditions Imposed by Supports -1 5.12.2 Cuts in Dry or Drained Sand -1 5.12.3 Cuts in Saturated Clay Under Undrained Conditions -1 5.12.3.1 Heave of the Bottom -1 5.12.3.2 Earth Pressure against Supports -1 5.13 Arching in Soils -1 6. Settlement and Contact Pressure -1 6.1 Introduction -1 6.1.1 Purpose of Settlement Investigations -1 6.1.2 Theoretical Approach to Settlement Problems -1 6.1.3 Computation of Contact Pressure -1 6.2 Vertical Pressure in Soil Beneath Loaded Areas -1 6.2.1 Boussinesq's Equations -1 6.2.2 Pressure Distribution on Horizontal Sections beneath Loaded Areas -1 6.2.3 Change of Pressure with Depth -1 6.3 Settlement of Foundations -1 6.3.1 Foundations above Confined Strata of Soft Clay -1 6.3.2 Foundations on Unstratified Soil -1 6.4 Contact Pressure and Theories of Subgrade Reaction -1 6.4.1 Contact Pressure on Base of Rigid Footings -1 6.4.2 Definition of Subgrade Reaction -1 6.4.3 Subgrade Reaction on Rigid Foundations -1 6.4.4 Subgrade Reaction on Flexible Foundations -1 6.4.5 Horizontal Subgrade Reaction -1 Part III. Problems of Design and Construction -1 7. Ground Improvement -1 7.1 Drainage Prior to Excavation -1 7.1.1 Introduction -1 7.1.2 Methods of Drainage -1 7.1.3 Historical Review of Drainage Techniques -1 7.1.4 Well-Point Method -1 7.1.5 Deep-Well Drainage Method -1 7.1.6 Eductor Well-Point Systems -1 7.1.7 Bleeder Wells -1 7.1.8 Vacuum Method -1 7.1.9 Drainage by Electro-Osmosis -1 7.1.10 Summary of Methods of Drainage -1 7.2 Compaction, Preloading, and Other Methods -1 7.2.1 Introduction -1 7.2.2 Compaction of Fills -1 7.2.2.1 Procedure and Equipment -1 7.2.2.2 Compaction of Cohesionless Soils -1 7.2.2.3 Compaction of Soils with Moderate Cohesion -1 7.2.2.4 Effect of Compaction on Stresses -1 7.2.3 Compaction of Soils in Place -1 7.2.3.1 Procedures and Equipment -1 7.2.3.2 Vibration Combined with Water Jetting -1 7.2.3.3 Compaction Induced by Explosives -1 7.2.3.4 Compaction by Dropping Weights -1 7.2.3.5 Pile Driving, Sand Piles, and Stone Columns -1 7.2.3.6 Preloading or Surcharging without or with Vertical Drains -1 7.2.4 Other Methods of Ground Improvement -1 7.2.4.1 General -1 7.2.4.2 Injection -1 7.2.4.3 Electro-Osmosis -1 7.2.4.4 Freezing -1 7.2.4.5 Heating -1 7.2.4.6 Chemical Additives -1 8. Earth Pressure and Stability of Slopes -1 8.1 Retaining Walls -1 8.1.1 Function and Types of Retaining Walls -1 8.1.2 Foundations for Retaining Walls -1 8.1.2.1 Introduction -1 8.1.2.2 Safety against Sliding -1 8.1.2.3 Safety against Overturning -1 8.1.2.4 Allowable Soil Pressure and Settlement -1 8.1.3 Backfill of Retaining Walls -1 8.1.3.1 Materials -1 8.1.3.2 Drainage Provisions for Retaining Walls -1 8.1.3.3 Provisions to Reduce Frost Action behind Retaining Walls -1 8.1.4 External Stability of Retaining Walls -1 8.1.4.1 Forces Acting on Retaining Walls -1 8.1.4.2 Use of Earth Pressure Theories for Determining External Pressure on Walls -1 8.1.4.3 Use of Semiempirical Rules for Estimating External Pressure on Retaining Walls -1 8.1.5 Internal Stability of Retaining Walls -1 8.1.5.1 Masonry and Concrete Walls -1 8.1.5.2 Reinforced Soil -1 8.1.5.3 Soil Nailing -1 8.1.6 Influence of Compaction on Rigid Vertical Walls -1 8.1.7 Earth Pressure Against Nonyielding Retaining Walls -1 8.1.8 Large-Scale Model Tests and Field Observations -1 8.1.9 Summary -1 8.2 Lateral Supports in Open Cuts -1 8.2.1 Introduction -1 8.2.2 Bracing of Shallow Cuts -1 8.2.3 Support of Deep Cuts -1 8.2.3.1 General Considerations in Design of Support Systems -1 8.2.3.2 Deep Cuts in Sand -1 8.2.3.3 Cuts in Saturated Clay -1 8.2.3.4 Deep Cuts in Soft to Medium Clay -1 8.2.3.5 Deep Cuts in Stiff Clay -1 8.2.3.6 Deep Cuts in Stratified Soils -1 8.2.4 Tiebacks -1 8.3 Stability of Hillsides and Slopes in Open Cuts -1 8.3.1 Causes and General Characteristics of Slope Failures -1 8.3.2 Engineering Problems Involving the Stability of Slopes -1 8.3.3 Standard Slopes -1 8.3.4 Stability of Slopes and Cuts in Sand -1 8.3.5 Stability of Cuts in Loess -1 8.3.6 Slides in Fairly Homogeneous Soft Clay -1 8.3.7 Quick Clay Flows -1 8.3.8 Stability of Slopes on Clay Containing Layers or Pockets of Water-Bearing Sand -1 8.3.9 Slides in Stiff Clay -1 8.3.10 Slopes on Shale -1 8.3.11 Sudden Spreading of Clay Slopes -1 8.3.12 Slopes on Residual Soil and Weathered Rock -1 8.3.12.1 General -1 8.3.12.2 Weathered Metamorphic Rocks -1 8.3.12.3 Weathered Granite -1 8.3.12.4 Weathered Basalts -1 8.3.12.5 Weathered Carbonate Rocks -1 8.3.12.6 Design of Slopes -1 8.3.13 Debris Flows -1 8.3.14 Summary of Approach to Stability of Slopes -1 8.4 Design and Stability of Embankments -1 8.4.1 Introduction -1 8.4.2 Early Practice in Construction of Railway and Highway Fills -1 8.4.3 Modern Practice for Railway and Highway Fills -1 8.4.4 Levees or Dikes -1 8.4.5 Types of Base Failure -1 8.4.6 Methods for Investigating Stability -1 8.4.7 Fills on Very Soft Organic Silt or Clay -1 8.4.8 Fills on Soft Homogeneous Clay -1 8.4.9 Varieties of Failure by Spreading -1 8.4.9.1 Spreading of Fills above Fairly Homogeneous Layers of Soft Clay -1 8.4.9.2 Spreading of Fills above Clay Strata with Sand or Silt Partings -1 8.4.10 Means for Increasing Stability of Fills above Thin Strata of Soft Clay -1 8.4.11 Summary -1 9. Foundations -1 9.1 Foundations for Structures -1 9.1.1 Types of Foundations for Structures -1 9.1.2 Minimum Depth of Building Foundations -1 9.1.3 Minimum Depth of Bridge Foundations -1 9.1.4 Allowable Pressure on the Subsoil -1 9.2 Footing Foundations -1 9.2.1 Origin and Shortcomings of Conventional Design Methods -1 9.2.1.1 Loads, Resistances, and Factors of Safety -1 9.2.2 Footings on Sand and Nonplastic Silt -1 9.2.2.1 Scope -1 9.2.2.2 Relevance and Limitations of Settlement Predictions -1 9.2.2.3 Early Application of Soil Mechanics to Settlement Prediction -1 9.2.2.4 Settlement Estimates by Semiempirical Statistical Approaches -1 9.2.2.5 Method Using Standard Penetration Test -1 9.2.2.6 Method Using Cone Penetration Test -1 9.2.2.7 Comparison of Standard Penetration and Cone Penetration Methods -1 9.2.2.8 Design of Footings on Sand and Gravel -1 9.2.3 Footings on Clay -1 9.2.3.1 Footings on Expansive Clays -1 9.2.4 Footing Foundations Located on Firm Soil above Soft Layers -1 9.2.5 Footings on Metastable Soils -1 9.2.5.1 Principal Types of Metastable Soils -1 9.2.5.2 Footings on Unsaturated Soils with Metastable Structure -1 9.2.5.3 Footings on Saprolite -1 9.2.5.4 Compressibility of Metastable Soils -1 9.3 Raft Foundations -1 9.3.1 Comparison between Raft and Footing Foundations -1 9.3.2 Settlement of Raft Foundations -1 9.3.2.1 Rafts on Sand -1 9.3.2.2 Rafts on Clay -1 9.3.3 Design of Raft Foundations -1 9.3.4 Heave during Basement Excavation -1 9.3.5 Footing Foundations on Natural Rafts -1 9.3.6 Footings on Sand in Basements below the Water Table -1 9.4 Pile Foundations -1 9.4.1 Function of Piles -1 9.4.2 Design of Pile Foundations -1 9.4.2.1 Historical Development -1 9.4.2.2 Steps in Design of a Pile Foundation -1 9.4.3 Ultimate Loads and Safe Design Loads for Single Piles -1 9.4.3.1 Side Resistance and Point Resistance -1 9.4.3.2 Relations between Driving Resistance and Depth -1 9.4.3.3 Use of Pile-driving Formulas for Estimating Ultimate Bearing Capacity -1 9.4.3.4 Use of Wave Equation in Design -1 9.4.3.5 Determination of Bearing Capacity by Load Test -1 9.4.3.6 Use of Wave Equation for Estimating Ultimate Bearing Capacity -1 9.4.3.7 Single Pile Entirely in Sand -1 9.4.3.8 Single Pile in Sand below Weak Deposits -1 9.4.3.9 Side Resistance on Single Pile in Saturated Clay -1 9.4.3.10 Action of Point-bearing Piles -1 9.4.3.11 Evaluation of Safe Design Load -1 9.4.4 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Pile Groups -1 9.4.5 Behavior of Pile Foundations -1 9.4.5.1 Friction Pile Foundation in Sand -1 9.4.5.2 Piles Driven through Compressible Strata into Sand or Gravel -1 9.4.5.3 Piles Driven to Sound Bedrock -1 9.4.5.4 Piles Driven into Decomposed Bedrock -1 9.4.5.5 Piles Driven through Compressible Strata into Stiff Clay -1 9.4.5.6 Piles Embedded in Firm Stratum Underlain by Soft Clay -1 9.4.5.7 Floating Pile Foundations in Deep Soft Deposit -1 9.4.5.8 Heave and Lateral Movement due to Pile Driving -1 9.4.5.9 Efficiency Equations -1 9.4.5.10 Selection of Type of Pile -1 9.4.6 Piles Subjected to Lateral Loads -1 9.4.6.1 Lateral Resistance of Single Piles -1 9.4.6.2 Lateral Resistance of Pile Groups -1 9.4.6.3 Effect of Repeated Lateral Loads on Vertical Piles -1 9.5 Pier Foundations -1 9.5.1 Function of Piers -1 9.5.2 Distinction between Piers and Piles -1 9.5.3 Caissons -1 9.5.3.1 Methods of Construction -1 9.5.3.2 Estimate of Skin Friction during Sinking of Caissons -1 9.5.4 Piers Constructed in Open Excavations -1 9.5.4.1 Piers on Sand -1 9.5.4.2 Piers on Clay -1 9.5.4.3 Hand-excavated Shafts -1 9.5.5 Drilled Shafts -1 9.5.5.1 Methods of Construction -1 9.5.5.2 Construction Implications of Subsurface Conditions -1 9.5.5.3 Behavior of Drilled Shafts under Compressive Load -1 9.5.5.4 Bearing Capacity of Drilled Shafts -1 9.5.5.5 Settlement of Drilled Shafts -1 9.5.5.6 Load Tests on Drilled Shafts -1 9.5.5.7 Uplift Capacity of Drilled Shafts -1 9.5.5.8 Drilled Shafts in Expansive Soils -1 9.5.5.9 Lateral Resistance of Drilled Shafts -1 10. Settlement Due to Extraneous Causes -1 10.1 Settlement Due to Excavation in Open Cuts -1 10.1.1 Characteristic Movements -1 10.1.2 Cuts in Sand -1 10.1.2.1 Sand Above Water Table -1 10.1.2.2 Effect of Lowering the Water Table in Sand Strata -1 10.1.3 Cuts in Soft to Medium Clays -1 10.1.4 Cuts in Stiff Clays or Cohesive Sands -1 10.1.5 Wide Cuts with Berms -1 10.1.6 Measures for Reduction of Settlement -1 10.2 Settlement Due to Increasing Stress in Subsoil -1 10.2.1 Effect of Adjacent Loads -1 10.2.2 Effect of Pumping on Clay Strata -1 10.3 Settlement Caused by Vibrations -1 10.3.1 Factors Determining Magnitude of Settlement -1 10.3.2 Examples of Settlement Due to Induced Vibrations -1 10.3.3 Settlement due to Earthquakes -1 10.3.3.1 Settlement due to Drained Shaking -1 10.3.3.2 Settlement due to Undrained Shaking -1 11. Dams and Dam Foundations -1 11.1 Types of Dams and Potential Modes of Failure -1 11.1.1 Types of Dams and Foundations -1 11.1.2 Causes of Failure -1 11.2 Mechanisms of Subsurface Erosion -1 11.2.1 Influence of Geologic Factors on Mechanics of Piping -1 11.2.2 Mechanics of Subsurface Erosion -1 11.2.3 Empirical Rules for Estimating Factor of Safety -1 11.2.4 Subsurface Erosion Initiated by Scour -1 11.2.5 Means for Avoiding Subsurface Erosion -1 11.2.6 Susceptibility of Soils to Erosion -1 11.3 Earth and Rockfill Dams -1 11.3.1 Basis for Design -1 11.3.2 Seepage Control -1 11.3.3 cutoffs -1 11.3.3.1 Efficiency of Cutoffs -1 11.3.3.2 Construction by Use of Slurry -1 11.3.3.3 Injected Cutoffs in Soils -1 11.3.3.4 Injected Curtains in Rock -1 11.3.4 Upstream Blankets -1 11.3.5 Drainage Provisions -1 11.3.6 Zoned Dams -1 11.3.6.1 Purpose of Zones -1 11.3.6.2 Arrangement of Zones -1 11.3.7 Deformation of Earth and Rockfill Dams -1 11.3.8 Slopes -1 11.3.9 Materials -1 11.3.10 Contact between Embankment and Foundation -1 11.3.11 Embankment Dams with Membranes -1 11.3.11.1 Upstream Facings -1 11.3.11.2 Internal Membranes -1 11.3.11.3 Synthetic Membranes and Filter Fabrics -1 11.4 Concrete Dams on Sediments -1 11.4.1 Modes of Failure -1 11.4.2 Safety with Respect to Sliding -1 11.4.3 Settlement Considerations -1 References -1 Author Index -1 Subject Index -1 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 Part I. Physical Properties of Soils 25 1. Index Properties of Soils 26 1.1 Practical Importance of Index Properties 26 1.2 Principal Types of Soils 26 1.3 Size and Shape of Soil Particles 29 1.4 Properties of Very Fine Soil Fractions 29 1.4.1 Mineralogical Composition 29 1.4.2 Characteristics of Principal Clay Minerals 30 1.4.3 Role of Isomorphic Substitution 32 1.4.4 Cation Exchange and Adsorbed Water 33 1.4.5 Fabric 35 1.4.6 Organic Soils 38 1.4.7 Practical Significance of Colloidal Properties -1 1.5 Mechanical Analysis of Soils -1 1.5.1 Methods of Mechanical Analysis -1 1.5.2 Abbreviated Representation of Grain-Size Characteristics -1 1.6 Soil Aggregate -1 1.6.1 Introduction -1 1.6.2 Texture, Structure, and Consistency -1 1.6.3 Porosity, Water Content, Unit Weight, and Density -1 1.7 Consistency of Fine-Grained Soils -1 1.7.1 Consistency and Sensitivity of Undisturbed Soils -1 1.7.2 Consistency of Remolded Soils -1 1.7.3 Plasticity Chart -1 1.8 Soil Classification -1 1.8.1 Practical Significance of Soil Classification -1 1.8.2 Classification Based on Grain Size -1 1.8.3 Unified Soil Classification System -1 1.9 Minimum Requirements for Adequate Soil Description -1 2. Soil Exploration -1 2.1 Purpose and Scope of Soil Exploration -1 2.1.1 Definition of Soil Exploration -1 2.1.2 Influence of Soil Conditions on Exploratory Program -1 2.1.3 Influence of Size of Project on Exploratory Program -1 2.1.4 Causes of Misjudgment of Subsoil Conditions -1 2.1.5 Observations during Construction -1 2.2 Methods of Soil Exploration -1 2.2.1 Principal Procedures -1 2.2.2 Boring -1 2.2.2.1 Methods of Drilling -1 2.2.2.2 Wash Borings -1 2.2.2.3 Rotary Drilling -1 2.2.2.4 Auger Borings -1 2.2.2.5 Hammer Drilling -1 2.2.2.6 Inspection Shafts -1 2.2.3 Sampling -1 2.2.3.1 Purpose -1 2.2.3.2 Split-spoon Sampling in Exploratory Drill Holes -1 2.2.3.3 Thin-walled Tube Samplers -1 2.2.3.4 Piston Samplers -1 2.2.3.5 Sampling Combined with Coring -1 2.2.3.6 Hand-carved Samples in Clay -1 2.2.3.7 Block Sampling in Bore Holes -1 2.2.3.8 Quality of Samples -1 2.2.3.9 Sampling in Sand -1 2.2.4 Subsurface Soundings -1 2.2.4.1 Purpose of Subsurface Soundings -1 2.2.4.2 Static Sounding Methods -1 2.2.4.3 Dynamic Methods -1 2.2.5 In Situ Tests -1 2.2.5.1 Purpose and Types -1 2.2.5.2 Vane Tests -1 2.2.5.3 Pressuremeter -1 2.2.6 Groundwater Investigations -1 2.2.6.1 Observation Wells -1 2.2.6.2 Piezometers -1 2.2.7 Geophysical Methods -1 2.3 Program for Subsoil Exploration -1 2.3.1 Type and Sequence of Operations -1 2.3.2 Geological Considerations -1 2.3.3 Spacing and Depth of Exploratory Borings -1 2.3.4 Relative Density of Sand Strata -1 2.3.5 Permeability of Sand Strata -1 2.3.6 Shearing Resistance of Saturated Clays -1 2.3.7 Compressibility of Clay Strata -1 2.3.8 Summary of Procedures in Subsoil Reconnaissance -1 2.3.9 Discrepancies between Reality and Assumptions Based on Subsoil Reconnaissance -1 3. Hydraulic and Mechanical Properties of Soils -1 3.1 Significance of Hydraulic and Mechanical Properties of Soils -1 3.2 Permeability of Soils -1 3.2.1 Introduction -1 3.2.2 Definitions and Darcy's Flow Equation -1 3.2.3 Permeability of Granular Soils -1 3.2.4 Permeability of Soft Clays -1 3.2.5 Permeability of Sand-Clay Mixtures -1 3.2.6 Laboratory Permeability Tests -1 3.2.7 In Situ Permeability Tests -1 3.2.8 Permeability of Stratified Masses of Soil -1 3.2.9 Particle Migration and Erosion -1 3.3 Effective Stress, Porewater Pressure, and Critical Hydraulic Gradient -1 3.3.1 Effective Stress -1 3.3.2 Mechanism of Effective Stress Transfer -1 3.3.3 Effective Vertical Stress -1 3.3.4 Critical Hydraulic Gradient -1 3.3.5 Porewater Pressures Resulting from Undrained Changes in State of Stress -1 3.3.5.1 Porewater Pressures Resulting from Changes in Equal All-Around Total Stress -1 3.3.5.2 Porewater Pressures Resulting from Application of Shear Stresses -1 3.3.6 Negative Pore Pressure in Soils -1 3.3.6.1 Capillarity and Suction -1 3.3.6.2 Drainage by Gravity -1 3.3.6.3 Drainage by Desiccation -1 3.3.6.4 Shrinking, Swelling, and Slaking -1 3.3.7 Electro-osmosis -1 3.3.8 Frost Heave -1 3.4 Compressibility of Confined Layers of Soil -1 3.4.1 Introduction -1 3.4.2 One-Dimensional Compression -1 3.4.3 Void Ratio-Effective Stress Relationship -1 3.4.4 Preconsolidation Pressure -1 3.4.5 Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest -1 3.4.6 Magnitude of Settlement -1 3.4.7 Settlement During Secondary Consolidation Stage -1 3.4.8 Rate of One-Dimensional Consolidation -1 3.4.9 Oedometer Test -1 3.4.10 Heave of Expansive Soils -1 3.5 Stress, Strain, and Failure in Soils -1 3.5.1 Introduction -1 3.5.2 Triaxial Apparatus and Procedure -1 3.5.3 Other Laboratory Shear Tests -1 3.5.3.1 Unconfined Compression Test -1 3.5.3.2 Direct Shear Test -1 3.5.3.3 Direct Simple Shear Test -1 3.5.3.4 Torsional Ring-Shear Test -1 3.5.3.5 Plane Strain Triaxial Test -1 3.5.4 Mohr's Rupture Diagram and Coulomb's Failure Equation -1 3.5.5 Relations Among Shear Stress, Shear Strain, and Time -1 3.5.5.1 Hyperbolic Stress-Strain Equation -1 3.5.5.2 Creep Equations -1 3.6 Behavior of Soils in Shear -1 3.6.1 Relation of Mineralogy to Shear Strength -1 3.6.2 Volumetric Response of Soils During Shear -1 3.6.2.1 Examples of Drained Behavior -1 3.6.2.2 Examples of Undrained Behavior -1 3.6.3 Stress Path to Failure -1 3.7 Drained Shear Strength -1 3.7.1 Drained Shear Strength of Granular Soils -1 3.7.2 Drained Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils -1 3.7.2.1 Intact Shear Strength -1 3.7.2.2 Fully Softened Shear Strength -1 3.7.2.3 Residual Shear Strength -1 3.8 Undrained Shear Strength of Soils -1 3.8.1 Undrained Failure -1 3.8.2 Yielding of Soil Structure -1 3.8.3 Undrained Shear Strength in Terms of Effective Stress at Failure -1 3.8.4 Measurement of Undrained Shear Strength -1 3.8.5 Mobilized Field Strength Based on In Situ Vane Experience -1 3.8.6 Undrained Shear Strength from Laboratory Shear Tests -1 3.8.7 Unconfined Compression Test -1 3.8.8 Undrained Shear Strength of Stiff Fissured Clays -1 3.8.9 Liquefaction of Saturated Loose Sands -1 3.8.9.1 Introduction -1 3.8.9.2 Soils Most Susceptible to Liquefaction -1 3.8.9.3 Liquefaction Behavior -1 3.8.9.4 Events Triggering Liquefaction -1 3.8.9.5 Cyclic Yield Strength from Laboratory Tests -1 3.8.9.6 Cyclic Yield Strength from in Situ Penetration Tests -1 3.8.9.7 Undrained Critical Shear Strength -1 3.9 Effect of Vibrations on Soils -1 Part II. Theoretical Soil Mechanics -1 Part III. Problems of Design and Construction -1 References -1 Author Index -1 Subject Index -1 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 Part I. Physical Properties of Soils -1 1. Index Properties of Soils -1 1.1 Practical Importance of Index Properties -1 1.2 Principal Types of Soils -1 1.3 Size and Shape of Soil Particles -1 1.4 Properties of Very Fine Soil Fractions -1 1.4.1 Mineralogical Composition -1 1.4.2 Characteristics of Principal Clay Minerals -1 1.4.3 Role of Isomorphic Substitution -1 1.4.4 Cation Exchange and Adsorbed Water -1 1.4.5 Fabric -1 1.4.6 Organic Soils -1 1.4.7 Practical Significance of Colloidal Properties 40 1.5 Mechanical Analysis of Soils 40 1.5.1 Methods of Mechanical Analysis 40 1.5.2 Abbreviated Representation of Grain-Size Characteristics 42 1.6 Soil Aggregate 42 1.6.1 Introduction 42 1.6.2 Texture, Structure, and Consistency 42 1.6.3 Porosity, Water Content, Unit Weight, and Density 42 1.7 Consistency of Fine-Grained Soils 45 1.7.1 Consistency and Sensitivity of Undisturbed Soils 45 1.7.2 Consistency of Remolded Soils 46 1.7.3 Plasticity Chart 47 1.8 Soil Classification 50 1.8.1 Practical Significance of Soil Classification 50 1.8.2 Classification Based on Grain Size 50 1.8.3 Unified Soil Classification System 51 1.9 Minimu