Spacecraft power technologies (Space Technology)

41176_fm 1 Front Matter 1 Preface 3 Acknowledgements 5 Table of Contents -1 Index -1 41176_toc 6 Front Matter -1 Preface -1 Table of Contents 6 1. Introduction -1 1.1 The Beginnings -1 1.1.1 The Increasing Demand for Spacecraft Electrical Power -1 1.1.2 The Architecture of a Spacecraft -1 1.2 The Electrical Power System -1 1.2.1 An Overview of Electrical Power Systems -1 1.2.2 Electrical Power System Designs -1 1.2.3 Examples of Missions and Their Electrical Power Systems -1 1.2.4 Spacecraft Electrical Power Technologies -1 1.2.5 An Overview of the Book -1 1.3 References -1 2. Environmental Factors -1 2.1 Introduction -1 2.2 Orbital Considerations -1 2.2.1 Orbital Elements -1 2.2.2 Eclipse Times -1 2.3 The Near-earth Space Environment -1 2.3.1 The Neutral Environment -1 2.3.2 The Plasma Environment -1 2.3.3 The Radiation Environment -1 2.3.4 The Particulate Environment -1 2.4 References -1 3. Solar Energy Conversion -1 3.1 Introduction -1 3.1.1 Space Photovoltaic Power Systems -1 3.1.2 Space Power System Applications and Requirements -1 3.1.3 Space Solar Cell and Array Technology Drivers -1 3.2 Solar Cell Fundamentals -1 3.2.1 Introduction -1 3.2.2 Basic Theory -1 3.3 Space Solar Cell Calibration and Performance Measurements -1 3.3.1 Calibration Techniques -1 3.3.2 Laboratory Measurement Techniques -1 3.4 Silicon Space Solar Cells -1 3.4.1 Advanced Silicon Solar Cells -1 3.4.2 Radiation Damage in Silicon Solar Cells -1 3.5 III-V Compound Semiconductor Solar Cells -1 3.5.1 Single Junction Cells -1 3.5.2 Multiple Junction Cells -1 3.6 Thin Film Solar Cells -1 3.7 Space Solar Cell Arrays -1 3.7.1 Space Solar Array Evolution -1 3.7.2 Rigid Panel Planar Solar Arrays -1 3.7.3 Flexible, Flat Panel Arrays -1 3.7.4 Concentrator Arrays -1 3.7.5 Array Environmental Interactions -1 3.7.6 Power System Design and Array Sizing -1 3.8 Space Thermophotovoltaic Power Systems -1 3.8.1 TPV System Efficiency -1 3.8.2 Solar Thermophotovoltaic Space Power Systems -1 3.9 Conclusion -1 3.10 References -1 4. Chemical Storage and Generation Systems -1 4.1 Introduction -1 4.2 Inventions -1 4.3 Evolution of Batteries in Space -1 4.4 Fundamentals of Electrochemistry -1 4.4.1 Standard Electrode Potential and Free Energy -1 4.4.2 The Nernst Equation -1 4.4.3 Capacity and the Faraday Relationship -1 4.5 Cell and Battery Mechanical Design -1 4.5.1 Cell Design -1 4.5.2 Battery Design -1 4.6 Performance Metrics -1 4.6.1 Voltage -1 4.6.2 Capacity and Energy -1 4.6.3 Specific Energy and Energy Density -1 4.6.4 Life and Performance Limitations -1 4.6.5 Charge Control -1 4.6.6 Efficiency and Thermal Properties -1 4.7 Electrochemical Cell Types -1 4.7.1 Primary Cells -1 4.7.2 Rechargeable Cells and Batteries -1 4.8 Fuel Cell Systems -1 4.8.1 History -1 4.8.2 Fuel Cell System Basics -1 4.8.3 Alkaline Fuel Cells -1 4.8.4 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells -1 4.8.5 Regenerative Fuel Cells -1 4.8.6 Direct Methanol Liquid-feed Fuel Cell/PEM -1 4.9 Definitions and Terminology -1 4.10 References -1 5. Nuclear Systems -1 5.1 Introduction -1 5.2 History of the U.S. Space Nuclear Program -1 5.2.1 Radioisotope Space Power Development -1 5.2.2 Space Reactor Power Development -1 5.2.3 The Future -1 5.3 History of the Russian Space Nuclear Program -1 5.4 Radioisotope Systems -1 5.5 Reactors -1 5.6 Safety -1 5.6.1 U.S. Safety -1 5.6.2 Russian Space Nuclear Safety Experience -1 5.6.3 International Developments in Space Nuclear Safety -1 5.7 References -1 6. Static Energy Conversion -1 6.1 Introduction -1 6.2 Thermoelectrics -1 6.3 Thermionics -1 6.4 AMTEC -1 6.5 Thermophotovoltaics -1 6.6 References -1 7. Dynamic Energy Conversion -1 7.1 Introduction -1 7.2 Stirling Cycle -1 7.3 Closed Brayton Cycle -1 7.4 Rankine Cycle -1 7.5 References -1 8. Power Management and Distribution -1 8.1 Introduction -1 8.1.1 The Ideal Power System -1 8.1.2 Power Subsystem Overview -1 8.1.3 Electrical Power System Options -1 8.2 Functions of PMAD -1 8.2.1 Power Management and Control -1 8.2.2 Power Distribution -1 8.2.3 Fault Management and Telemetry -1 8.2.4 Point-of-load DC-DC Converters -1 8.3 Components and Packaging -1 8.3.1 High-reliability Space-grade Parts -1 8.3.2 Packaging Technologies -1 8.4 System Examples -1 8.4.1 The Lockheed Martin A2100 -1 8.4.2 Global Positioning System Block IIR -1 8.4.3 The International Space Station -1 8.4.4 The Modular Power System -1 8.5 References -1 9. Thermal Management -1 9.1 Introduction -1 9.1.1 Definition and Purpose of a TCS -1 9.1.2 Characterization and Design of the Thermal Control Process -1 9.2 The Thermal Environment -1 9.2.1 Solar Radiation -1 9.2.2 Planetary Radiation -1 9.2.3 Spacecraft-generated Heat -1 9.3 Heat Transfer Mechanisms -1 9.3.1 Heat Transfer by Conduction -1 9.3.2 Heat Transfer by Radiation -1 9.3.3 Absorptivity and Emissivity -1 9.4 The Basics of Thermal Analysis -1 9.5 Thermal Management Techniques -1 9.5.1 Passive Thermal Management -1 9.5.2 Active Thermal Management -1 9.6 References -1 Appendix: Magnetic Materials in Power Management -1 Index -1 41176_01 12 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 1. Introduction 12 1.1. The Beginnings 12 1.1.1 The Increasing Demand for Spacecraft Electrical Power 14 1.1.2 The Architecture of a Spacecraft 16 1.2. The Electrical Power System 18 1.2.1 An Overview of Electrical Power Systems 18 1.2.2 Electrical Power System Designs 21 1.2.3 Examples of Missions and Their Electrical Power Systems 23 1.2.4 Spacecraft Electrical Power Technologies 28 1.2.5 An Overview of the Book 29 1.3. References 31 Index -1 41176_02 33 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 2. Environmental Factors 33 2.1. Introduction 33 2.2. Orbital Considerations 35 2.2.1 Orbital Elements 37 2.2.2 Eclipse Times 39 2.3. The Near-earth Space Environment 43 2.3.1 The Neutral Environment 43 2.3.2 The Plasma Environment 51 2.3.3 The Radiation Environment 56 2.3.4 The Particulate Environment 72 2.4. References 76 Index -1 41176_03a 80 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 3. Solar Energy Conversion 80 3.1. Introduction 80 3.1.1 Space Photovoltaic Power Systems 81 3.1.2 Space Power System Applications and Requirements 82 3.1.3 Space Solar Cell and Array Technology Drivers 83 3.2. Solar Cell Fundamentals 84 3.2.1 Introduction 84 3.2.2 Basic Theory 86 3.3. Space Solar Cell Calibration and Performance Measurements 89 3.3.1 Calibration Techniques 90 3.3.2 Laboratory Measurement Techniques 93 3.4. Silicon Space Solar Cells 97 3.4.1 Advanced Silicon Solar Cells 98 3.4.2 Radiation Damage in Silicon Solar Cells 99 3.5. III-V Compound Semiconductor Solar Cells -1 3.5.1 Single Junction Cells -1 3.5.2 Multiple Junction Cells -1 3.6. Thin Film Solar Cells -1 3.7. Space Solar Cell Arrays -1 3.7.1 Space Solar Array Evolution -1 3.7.2 Rigid Panel Planar Solar Arrays -1 3.7.3 Flexible, Flat Panel Arrays -1 3.7.4 Concentrator Arrays -1 3.7.5 Array Environmental Interactions -1 3.7.6 Power System Design and Array Sizing -1 3.8. Space Thermophotovoltaic Power Systems -1 3.8.1 TPV System Efficiency -1 3.8.2 Solar Thermophotovoltaic Space Power Systems -1 3.9. Conclusion -1 3.10. References -1 Index -1 41176_03b 105 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 3. Solar Energy Conversion -1 3.1. Introduction -1 3.1.1 Space Photovoltaic Power Systems -1 3.1.2 Space Power System Applications and Requirements -1 3.1.3 Space Solar Cell and Array Technology Drivers -1 3.2. Solar Cell Fundamentals -1 3.2.1 Introduction -1 3.2.2 Basic Theory -1 3.3. Space Solar Cell Calibration and Performance Measurements -1 3.3.1 Calibration Techniques -1 3.3.2 Laboratory Measurement Techniques -1 3.4. Silicon Space Solar Cells -1 3.4.1 Advanced Silicon Solar Cells -1 3.4.2 Radiation Damage in Silicon Solar Cells -1 3.5. III-V Compound Semiconductor Solar Cells 105 3.5.1 Single Junction Cells 106 3.5.2 Multiple Junction Cells 118 3.6. Thin Film Solar Cells 127 3.7. Space Solar Cell Arrays -1 3.7.1 Space Solar Array Evolution -1 3.7.2 Rigid Panel Planar Solar Arrays -1 3.7.3 Flexible, Flat Panel Arrays -1 3.7.4 Concentrator Arrays -1 3.7.5 Array Environmental Interactions -1 3.7.6 Power System Design and Array Sizing -1 3.8. Space Thermophotovoltaic Power Systems -1 3.8.1 TPV System Efficiency -1 3.8.2 Solar Thermophotovoltaic Space Power Systems -1 3.9. Conclusion -1 3.10. References -1 Index -1 41176_03c 130 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 3. Solar Energy Conversion -1 3.1. Introduction -1 3.1.1 Space Photovoltaic Power Systems -1 3.1.2 Space Power System Applications and Requirements -1 3.1.3 Space Solar Cell and Array Technology Drivers -1 3.2. Solar Cell Fundamentals -1 3.2.1 Introduction -1 3.2.2 Basic Theory -1 3.3. Space Solar Cell Calibration and Performance Measurements -1 3.3.1 Calibration Techniques -1 3.3.2 Laboratory Measurement Techniques -1 3.4. Silicon Space Solar Cells -1 3.4.1 Advanced Silicon Solar Cells -1 3.4.2 Radiation Damage in Silicon Solar Cells -1 3.5. III-V Compound Semiconductor Solar Cells -1 3.5.1 Single Junction Cells -1 3.5.2 Multiple Junction Cells -1 3.6. Thin Film Solar Cells -1 3.7. Space Solar Cell Arrays 130 3.7.1 Space Solar Array Evolution 131 3.7.2 Rigid Panel Planar Solar Arrays 131 3.7.3 Flexible, Flat Panel Arrays 133 3.7.4 Concentrator Arrays 137 3.7.5 Array Environmental Interactions 140 3.7.6 Power System Design and Array Sizing 147 3.8. Space Thermophotovoltaic Power Systems -1 3.8.1 TPV System Efficiency -1 3.8.2 Solar Thermophotovoltaic Space Power Systems -1 3.9. Conclusion -1 3.10. References -1 Index -1 41176_03d 151 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 3. Solar Energy Conversion -1 3.1. Introduction -1 3.1.1 Space Photovoltaic Power Systems -1 3.1.2 Space Power System Applications and Requirements -1 3.1.3 Space Solar Cell and Array Technology Drivers -1 3.2. Solar Cell Fundamentals -1 3.2.1 Introduction -1 3.2.2 Basic Theory -1 3.3. Space Solar Cell Calibration and Performance Measurements -1 3.3.1 Calibration Techniques -1 3.3.2 Laboratory Measurement Techniques -1 3.4. Silicon Space Solar Cells -1 3.4.1 Advanced Silicon Solar Cells -1 3.4.2 Radiation Damage in Silicon Solar Cells -1 3.5. III-V Compound Semiconductor Solar Cells -1 3.5.1 Single Junction Cells -1 3.5.2 Multiple Junction Cells -1 3.6. Thin Film Solar Cells -1 3.7. Space Solar Cell Arrays -1 3.7.1 Space Solar Array Evolution -1 3.7.2 Rigid Panel Planar Solar Arrays -1 3.7.3 Flexible, Flat Panel Arrays -1 3.7.4 Concentrator Arrays -1 3.7.5 Array Environmental Interactions -1 3.7.6 Power System Design and Array Sizing -1 3.8. Space Thermophotovoltaic Power Systems 151 3.8.1 TPV System Efficiency 152 3.8.2 Solar Thermophotovoltaic Space Power Systems 155 3.9. Conclusion 158 3.10. References 160 Index -1 41176_04a 168 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 4. Chemical Storage and Generation Systems 168 4.1. Introduction 168 4.2. Inventions 169 4.3. Evolution of Batteries in Space 170 4.4. Fundamentals of Electrochemistry 174 4.4.1 Standard Electrode Potential and Free Energy 175 4.4.2 The Nernst Equation 176 4.4.3 Capacity and the Faraday Relationship 177 4.5. Cell and Battery Mechanical Design 177 4.5.1 Cell Design 177 4.5.2 Battery Design 181 4.6. Performance Metrics 182 4.6.1 Voltage 183 4.6.2 Capacity and Energy 185 4.6.3 Specific Energy and Energy Density 186 4.6.4 Life and Performance Limitations 187 4.6.5 Charge Control 191 4.6.6 Efficiency and Thermal Properties 192 4.7. Electrochemical Cell Types -1 4.7.1 Primary Cells -1 4.7.2 Rechargeable Cells and Batteries -1 4.8. Fuel Cell Systems -1 4.8.1 History -1 4.8.2 Fuel Cell System Basics -1 4.8.3 Alkaline Fuel Cells -1 4.8.4 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells -1 4.8.5 Regenerative Fuel Cells -1 4.8.6 Direct Methanol Liquid-feed Fuel Cell/PEM -1 4.9. Definitions and Terminology -1 4.10. References -1 Index -1 41176_04b 196 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 4. Chemical Storage and Generation Systems -1 4.1. Introduction -1 4.2. Inventions -1 4.3. Evolution of Batteries in Space -1 4.4. Fundamentals of Electrochemistry -1 4.4.1 Standard Electrode Potential and Free Energy -1 4.4.2 The Nernst Equation -1 4.4.3 Capacity and the Faraday Relationship -1 4.5. Cell and Battery Mechanical Design -1 4.5.1 Cell Design -1 4.5.2 Battery Design -1 4.6. Performance Metrics -1 4.6.1 Voltage -1 4.6.2 Capacity and Energy -1 4.6.3 Specific Energy and Energy Density -1 4.6.4 Life and Performance Limitations -1 4.6.5 Charge Control -1 4.6.6 Efficiency and Thermal Properties -1 4.7. Electrochemical Cell Types 196 4.7.1 Primary Cells 196 4.7.2 Rechargeable Cells and Batteries -1 4.8. Fuel Cell Systems -1 4.8.1 History -1 4.8.2 Fuel Cell System Basics -1 4.8.3 Alkaline Fuel Cells -1 4.8.4 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells -1 4.8.5 Regenerative Fuel Cells -1 4.8.6 Direct Methanol Liquid-feed Fuel Cell/PEM -1 4.9. Definitions and Terminology -1 4.10. References -1 Index -1 41176_04c 215 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 4. Chemical Storage and Generation Systems -1 4.1. Introduction -1 4.2. Inventions -1 4.3. Evolution of Batteries in Space -1 4.4. Fundamentals of Electrochemistry -1 4.4.1 Standard Electrode Potential and Free Energy -1 4.4.2 The Nernst Equation -1 4.4.3 Capacity and the Faraday Relationship -1 4.5. Cell and Battery Mechanical Design -1 4.5.1 Cell Design -1 4.5.2 Battery Design -1 4.6. Performance Metrics -1 4.6.1 Voltage -1 4.6.2 Capacity and Energy -1 4.6.3 Specific Energy and Energy Density -1 4.6.4 Life and Performance Limitations -1 4.6.5 Charge Control -1 4.6.6 Efficiency and Thermal Properties -1 4.7. Electrochemical Cell Types -1 4.7.1 Primary Cells -1 4.7.2 Rechargeable Cells and Batteries 215 4.8. Fuel Cell Systems -1 4.8.1 History -1 4.8.2 Fuel Cell System Basics -1 4.8.3 Alkaline Fuel Cells -1 4.8.4 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells -1 4.8.5 Regenerative Fuel Cells -1 4.8.6 Direct Methanol Liquid-feed Fuel Cell/PEM -1 4.9. Definitions and Terminology -1 4.10. References -1 Index -1 41176_04d 236 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 4. Chemical Storage and Generation Systems -1 4.1. Introduction -1 4.2. Inventions -1 4.3. Evolution of Batteries in Space -1 4.4. Fundamentals of Electrochemistry -1 4.4.1 Standard Electrode Potential and Free Energy -1 4.4.2 The Nernst Equation -1 4.4.3 Capacity and the Faraday Relationship -1 4.5. Cell and Battery Mechanical Design -1 4.5.1 Cell Design -1 4.5.2 Battery Design -1 4.6. Performance Metrics -1 4.6.1 Voltage -1 4.6.2 Capacity and Energy -1 4.6.3 Specific Energy and Energy Density -1 4.6.4 Life and Performance Limitations -1 4.6.5 Charge Control -1 4.6.6 Efficiency and Thermal Properties -1 4.7. Electrochemical Cell Types -1 4.7.1 Primary Cells -1 4.7.2 Rechargeable Cells and Batteries -1 4.8. Fuel Cell Systems 236 4.8.1 History 237 4.8.2 Fuel Cell System Basics 239 4.8.3 Alkaline Fuel Cells 242 4.8.4 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 243 4.8.5 Regenerative Fuel Cells 244 4.8.6 Direct Methanol Liquid-feed Fuel Cell/PEM 245 4.9. Definitions and Terminology 248 4.10. References 252 Index -1 41176_05a 253 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 5. Nuclear Systems 253 5.1. Introduction 253 5.2. History of the U.S. Space Nuclear Program 254 5.2.1 Radioisotope Space Power Development 256 5.2.2 Space Reactor Power Development 262 5.2.3 The Future 265 5.3. History of the Russian Space Nuclear Program 267 5.4. Radioisotope Systems 270 5.5. Reactors -1 5.6. Safety -1 5.6.1 U.S. Safety -1 5.6.2 Russian Space Nuclear Safety Experience -1 5.6.3 International Developments in Space Nuclear Safety -1 5.7. References -1 Index -1 41176_05b 277 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 5. Nuclear Systems -1 5.1. Introduction -1 5.2. History of the U.S. Space Nuclear Program -1 5.2.1 Radioisotope Space Power Development -1 5.2.2 Space Reactor Power Development -1 5.2.3 The Future -1 5.3. History of the Russian Space Nuclear Program -1 5.4. Radioisotope Systems -1 5.5. Reactors 277 5.6. Safety 286 5.6.1 U.S. Safety 287 5.6.2 Russian Space Nuclear Safety Experience 293 5.6.3 International Developments in Space Nuclear Safety 295 5.7. References 295 Index -1 41176_06 300 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 6. Static Energy Conversion 300 6.1. Introduction 300 6.2. Thermoelectrics 301 6.3. Thermionics 307 6.4. AMTEC 320 6.5. Thermophotovoltaics 324 6.6. References 331 Index -1 41176_07 335 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 7. Dynamic Energy Conversion 335 7.1. Introduction 335 7.2. Stirling Cycle 336 7.3. Closed Brayton Cycle 344 7.4. Rankine Cycle 352 7.5. References 361 Index -1 41176_08a 364 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 8. Power Management and Distribution 364 8.1. Introduction 364 8.1.1 The Ideal Power System 364 8.1.2 Power Subsystem Overview 368 8.1.3 Electrical Power System Options 372 8.2. Functions of PMAD 374 8.2.1 Power Management and Control 374 8.2.2 Power Distribution 383 8.2.3 Fault Management and Telemetry 385 8.2.4 Point-of-load DC-DC Converters 386 8.3. Components and Packaging -1 8.3.1 High-reliability Space-grade Parts -1 8.3.2 Packaging Technologies -1 8.4. System Examples -1 8.4.1 The Lockheed Martin A2100 -1 8.4.2 Global Positioning System Block IIR -1 8.4.3 The International Space Station -1 8.4.4 The Modular Power System -1 8.5. References -1 Index -1 41176_08b 409 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 8. Power Management and Distribution -1 8.1. Introduction -1 8.1.1 The Ideal Power System -1 8.1.2 Power Subsystem Overview -1 8.1.3 Electrical Power System Options -1 8.2. Functions of PMAD -1 8.2.1 Power Management and Control -1 8.2.2 Power Distribution -1 8.2.3 Fault Management and Telemetry -1 8.2.4 Point-of-load DC-DC Converters -1 8.3. Components and Packaging 409 8.3.1 High-reliability Space-grade Parts 410 8.3.2 Packaging Technologies 416 8.4. System Examples 416 8.4.1 The Lockheed Martin A2100 417 8.4.2 Global Positioning System Block IIR 419 8.4.3 The International Space Station 419 8.4.4 The Modular Power System 421 8.5. References 424 Index -1 41176_09 426 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 9. Thermal Management 426 9.1. Introduction 426 9.1.1 Definition and Purpose of a TCS 427 9.1.2 Characterization and Design of the Thermal Control Process 428 9.2. The Thermal Environment 432 9.2.1 Solar Radiation 433 9.2.2 Planetary Radiation 435 9.2.3 Spacecraft-generated Heat 437 9.3. Heat Transfer Mechanisms 440 9.3.1 Heat Transfer by Conduction 440 9.3.2 Heat Transfer by Radiation 441 9.3.3 Absorptivity and Emissivity 443 9.4. The Basics of Thermal Analysis 446 9.5. Thermal Management Techniques 448 9.5.1 Passive Thermal Management 449 9.5.2 Active Thermal Management 456 9.6. References 460 Index -1 41176_app 463 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 Appendix: Magnetic Materials in Power Management 463 Index -1 41176_indx 475 Front Matter -1 Table of Contents -1 Index 475 A 475 B 475 C 477 D 478 E 478 F 482 G 482 H 483 I 483 K 483 L 484 M 484 N 484 O 485 P 486 R 489 S 490 T 496 U 498 W 498 Y 498 Front Matter......Page 1 Preface......Page 3 Acknowledgements......Page 5 Table of Contents......Page 0 Table of Contents......Page 6 1.1. The Beginnings......Page 12 1.1.1 The Increasing Demand for Spacecraft Electrical Power......Page 14 1.1.2 The Architecture of a Spacecraft......Page 16 1.2.1 An Overview of Electrical Power Systems......Page 18 1.2.2 Electrical Power System Designs......Page 21 1.2.3 Examples of Missions and Their Electrical Power Systems......Page 23 1.2.4 Spacecraft Electrical Power Technologies......Page 28 1.2.5 An Overview of the Book......Page 29 1.3. References......Page 31 2.1. Introduction......Page 33 2.2. Orbital Considerations......Page 35 2.2.1 Orbital Elements......Page 37 2.2.2 Eclipse Times......Page 39 2.3.1 The Neutral Environment......Page 43 2.3.2 The Plasma Environment......Page 51 2.3.3 The Radiation Environment......Page 56 2.3.4 The Particulate Environment......Page 72 2.4. References......Page 76 3.1. Introduction......Page 80 3.1.1 Space Photovoltaic Power Systems......Page 81 3.1.2 Space Power System Applications and Requirements......Page 82 3.1.3 Space Solar Cell and Array Technology Drivers......Page 83 3.2.1 Introduction......Page 84 3.2.2 Basic Theory......Page 86 3.3. Space Solar Cell Calibration and Performance Measurements......Page 89 3.3.1 Calibration Techniques......Page 90 3.3.2 Laboratory Measurement Techniques......Page 93 3.4. Silicon Space Solar Cells......Page 97 3.4.1 Advanced Silicon Solar Cells......Page 98 3.4.2 Radiation Damage in Silicon Solar Cells......Page 99 3.5. III-V Compound Semiconductor Solar Cells......Page 105 3.5.1 Single Junction Cells......Page 106 3.5.2 Multiple Junction Cells......Page 118 3.6. Thin Film Solar Cells......Page 127 3.7. Space Solar Cell Arrays......Page 130 3.7.2 Rigid Panel Planar Solar Arrays......Page 131 3.7.3 Flexible, Flat Panel Arrays......Page 133 3.7.4 Concentrator Arrays......Page 137 3.7.5 Array Environmental Interactions......Page 140 3.7.6 Power System Design and Array Sizing......Page 147 3.8. Space Thermophotovoltaic Power Systems......Page 151 3.8.1 TPV System Efficiency......Page 152 3.8.2 Solar Thermophotovoltaic Space Power Systems......Page 155 3.9. Conclusion......Page 158 3.10. References......Page 160 4.1. Introduction......Page 168 4.2. Inventions......Page 169 4.3. Evolution of Batteries in Space......Page 170 4.4. Fundamentals of Electrochemistry......Page 174 4.4.1 Standard Electrode Potential and Free Energy......Page 175 4.4.2 The Nernst Equation......Page 176 4.5.1 Cell Design......Page 177 4.5.2 Battery Design......Page 181 4.6. Performance Metrics......Page 182 4.6.1 Voltage......Page 183 4.6.2 Capacity and Energy......Page 185 4.6.3 Specific Energy and Energy Density......Page 186 4.6.4 Life and Performance Limitations......Page 187 4.6.5 Charge Control......Page 191 4.6.6 Efficiency and Thermal Properties......Page 192 4.7.1 Primary Cells......Page 196 4.7.2 Rechargeable Cells and Batteries......Page 215 4.8. Fuel Cell Systems......Page 236 4.8.1 History......Page 237 4.8.2 Fuel Cell System Basics......Page 239 4.8.3 Alkaline Fuel Cells......Page 242 4.8.4 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells......Page 243 4.8.5 Regenerative Fuel Cells......Page 244 4.8.6 Direct Methanol Liquid-feed Fuel Cell/PEM......Page 245 4.9. Definitions and Terminology......Page 248 4.10. References......Page 252 5.1. Introduction......Page 253 5.2. History of the U.S. Space Nuclear Program......Page 254 5.2.1 Radioisotope Space Power Development......Page 256 5.2.2 Space Reactor Power Development......Page 262 5.2.3 The Future......Page 265 5.3. History of the Russian Space Nuclear Program......Page 267 5.4. Radioisotope Systems......Page 270 5.5. Reactors......Page 277 5.6. Safety......Page 286 5.6.1 U.S. Safety......Page 287 5.6.2 Russian Space Nuclear Safety Experience......Page 293 5.7. References......Page 295 6.1. Introduction......Page 300 6.2. Thermoelectrics......Page 301 6.3. Thermionics......Page 307 6.4. AMTEC......Page 320 6.5. Thermophotovoltaics......Page 324 6.6. References......Page 331 7.1. Introduction......Page 335 7.2. Stirling Cycle......Page 336 7.3. Closed Brayton Cycle......Page 344 7.4. Rankine Cycle......Page 352 7.5. References......Page 361 8.1.1 The Ideal Power System......Page 364 8.1.2 Power Subsystem Overview......Page 368 8.1.3 Electrical Power System Options......Page 372 8.2.1 Power Management and Control......Page 374 8.2.2 Power Distribution......Page 383 8.2.3 Fault Management and Telemetry......Page 385 8.2.4 Point-of-load DC-DC Converters......Page 386 8.3. Components and Packaging......Page 409 8.3.1 High-reliability Space-grade Parts......Page 410 8.4. System Examples......Page 416 8.4.1 The Lockheed Martin A2100......Page 417 8.4.3 The International Space Station......Page 419 8.4.4 The Modular Power System......Page 421 8.5. References......Page 424 9.1. Introduction......Page 426 9.1.1 Definition and Purpose of a TCS......Page 427 9.1.2 Characterization and Design of the Thermal Control Process......Page 428 9.2. The Thermal Environment......Page 432 9.2.1 Solar Radiation......Page 433 9.2.2 Planetary Radiation......Page 435 9.2.3 Spacecraft-generated Heat......Page 437 9.3.1 Heat Transfer by Conduction......Page 440 9.3.2 Heat Transfer by Radiation......Page 441 9.3.3 Absorptivity and Emissivity......Page 443 9.4. The Basics of Thermal Analysis......Page 446 9.5. Thermal Management Techniques......Page 448 9.5.1 Passive Thermal Management......Page 449 9.5.2 Active Thermal Management......Page 456 9.6. References......Page 460 Appendix: Magnetic Materials in Power Management......Page 463 B......Page 475 C......Page 477 E......Page 478 G......Page 482 K......Page 483 N......Page 484 O......Page 485 P......Page 486 R......Page 489 S......Page 490 T......Page 496 Y......Page 498