Technical Communication

Technical Communication is designed to help you write persuasively, effectively and with a global perspective on innovations in communication. The text provides straightforward explanations that build from foundational concepts and research to document design and applications. Helpful annotated model documents and figures include examples relevant to today's workplace and make abstract concepts and technical document creation easy to grasp. Clear objectives appear at the start of every chapter and are reinforced by cases, guidelines and projects that offer meaningful practice. The 16th Edition reflects current innovations in communication for a digitally savvy, diverse and global workforce. Coverage includes Guidelines for Identifying Misinformation, effective and legally sound use of social media and AI's role in the writing process. Cover Title Page Copyright Page BEP Brief Contents Detailed Contents List of Sample Documents and Forms A Topical List of the GUIDELINES Boxes A Guide to the CHECKLISTS Preface Part 1 Communicating in the Workplace 1 Introduction to Technical Communication What Is Technical Communication? Technical Communication Is a Digital and a Human Activity Technical Communication Reaches a Global Audience Technical Communication Is Part of Most Careers Technical Communicators Play Many Roles Main Features of Technical Communication Reader‐Centered Accessible and Efficient Often Produced by Teams Delivered in Paper and Digital Versions Purposes of Technical Communication Documents That Inform Documents That Instruct Documents That Persuade Preparing Effective Technical Documents CASE Providing Information Readers Can Use CASE Being Persuasive CASE Considering the Ethical Issues CASE Working on a Team and Thinking Globally PROJECTS 2 Meeting the Needs of Specific Audiences Analyze Your Document’s Audience and Purpose Primary and Secondary Audiences Your Relationship to Your Readers Purpose of Your Document Primary and Secondary Purposes Intended Use of the Document Assess the Audience’s Technical Background Highly Technical Audience Semitechnical Audience Nontechnical Audience Audiences with Varying Technical Backgrounds CASE Tailoring a Single Document for Multiple Audiences Digital Documents for Multiple Audiences Anticipate Your Audience’s Preferences Length and Details Format and Medium Tone Due Date and Timing Budget GUIDELINES for Analyzing Your Audience and Its Use of the Document Develop an Audience and Use Profile CASE Developing an Audience and Use Profile CHECKLIST Analyzing Audience and Purpose PROJECTS 3 Persuading Your Audience What Is Persuasion? Identify Your Specific Persuasive Goal Try to Predict Audience Reaction Expect Audience Resistance Know How to Connect with the Audience CASE Connecting with the Audience Allow for Give‐and‐Take Ask for a Specific Response Never Ask for Too Much Recognize All Constraints Organizational Constraints Legal Constraints Ethical Constraints Time Constraints Social and Psychological Constraints CONSIDER THIS People Often React Emotionally to Persuasive Appeals Support Your Claims Convincingly Offer Convincing Evidence FACTUAL STATEMENTS STATISTICS EXAMPLES EXPERT TESTIMONY Appeal to Common Goals and Values Consider the Cultural Context Persuasion and Social Media GUIDELINES for Persuasion Shaping Your Argument CHECKLIST Persuasion PROJECTS 4 Weighing the Ethical Issues Recognize Examples and Causes of Unethical Workplace Communication Yielding to Social Pressure Mistaking Groupthink for Teamwork Types of Communication Abuses in the Workplace Suppressing Knowledge the Public Needs Hiding Conflicts of Interest Exaggerating Claims about Technology Falsifying or Fabricating Data Using Visual Images That Conceal the Truth Stealing or Divulging Proprietary Information Withholding Information People Need for Their Jobs Exploiting Cultural Differences Ethical Issues and Social Media Rely on Critical Thinking for Ethical Decisions Reasonable Criteria for Ethical Judgment Ethical Dilemmas Anticipate Some Hard Choices CASE A Hard Choice Learn to Recognize Legal Issues and Plagiarism Learn to Recognize Plagiarism Blatant versus Unintentional Plagiarism Plagiarism and the Internet Plagiarism and Your Career CONSIDER THIS Ethical Standards are Good for Business Decide When and How to Report Ethical Abuses GUIDELINES for Ethical Communication CHECKLIST Ethical Communication PROJECTS 5 Teamwork and Global Considerations Teamwork and Project Management GUIDELINES for Managing a Collaborative Project Teamwork: Virtual and In‐Person GUIDELINES for Running a Meeting Identifying and Managing Conflicts in Collaborative Groups Interpersonal Differences Gender Differences Cultural Differences Managing Group Conflict Overcoming Differences by Active Listening GUIDELINES for Active Listening Thinking Creatively Brainstorm as a Way of Getting Started Brainstorming with Digital Technologies Mind‐Mapping Storyboarding Reviewing and Editing Others’ Work GUIDELINES for Peer Reviewing and Editing Ethical Issues in Workplace Collaboration Intimidating One’s Peers Claiming Credit for Others’ Work Hoarding Information Global Considerations When Working in Teams Interpersonal Issues in Global Teams DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MISUNDERSTANDING CULTURAL CODES MISUSING HUMOR, SLANG, AND IDIOMS MISUSING CULTURALLY SPECIFIC REFERENCES FAILING TO ALLOW FOR EASY TRANSLATION FAILING TO LISTEN GUIDELINES for Communicating on a Global Team CHECKLIST Teamwork and Global Considerations PROJECTS 6 An Overview of the Technical Writing Process Critical Thinking in the Writing Process A Sample Writing Situation Working with the Information Planning the Document Drafting the Document Revising the Document Make Proofreading Your Final Step GUIDELINES for Proofreading Digital Technology and the Writing Process CONSIDER THIS ChatGPT and the Technical Writing Process CHECKLIST Proofreading PROJECTS Part 2 The Research Process 7 Thinking Critically about the Research Process Three Essential Approaches to Research Asking the Right Questions CASE Defining and Refining a Research Question Exploring a Balance of Views Achieving Adequate Depth in Your Search Evaluating and Interpreting Your Findings Primary versus Secondary Sources Exploring Secondary Sources Searching for Secondary Sources GOOGLE AND OTHER SEARCH ENGINES WIKIPEDIA DIGITAL LIBRARIES LIBRARIES AND LIBRARY WEB SITES Types of Secondary Sources WEB SITES (GENERAL) GOVERNMENT WEB SITES BLOGS WIKIS (INCLUDING WIKIPEDIA) SOCIAL MEDIA ONLINE GROUPS NEWS OUTLETS (INCLUDING MAGAZINES AND OTHER PERIODICALS) BOOKS PEER-REVIEWED JOURNAL ARTICLES GRAY LITERATURE REFERENCE WORKS GUIDELINES for Online Research GUIDELINES for Identifying Misinformation Exploring Primary Sources Unsolicited Inquiries Informational Interviews GUIDELINES for Informational Interviews Surveys Observations and Experiments GUIDELINES for Surveys CONSIDER THIS Frequently Asked Questions about Copyright PROJECTS 8 Evaluating and Interpreting Information Evaluate the Sources Pay Special Attention to Evaluating Online Sources Evaluate the Evidence Interpret Your Findings Identify Your Level of Certainty Examine the Underlying Assumptions Be Alert for Personal Bias Consider Other Possible Interpretations Consider This Standards of Proof Vary for Different Audiences Avoid Distorted or Unethical Reasoning Faulty Generalization Faulty Causal Reasoning Faulty Statistical Analysis THE SANITIZED STATISTIC THE MEANINGLESS STATISTIC THE UNDEFINED AVERAGE THE DISTORTED PERCENTAGE FIGURE THE BOGUS RANKING CONFUSION OF CORRELATION WITH CAUSATION THE BIASED META-ANALYSIS THE FALLIBLE COMPUTER MODEL GENERAL TERMINOLOGY Acknowledge the Limits of Research Obstacles to Validity and Reliability Flaws in Research Studies Social Media and Research Reporting GUIDELINES for Evaluating and Interpreting Information CHECKLIST The Research Process PROJECTS 9 Summarizing Research Findings and Other Information Considering Audience and Purpose What Readers Expect from a Summary How to Create a Summary CASE GUIDELINES for Summarizing Information Special Types of Summaries Closing Summary Informative Abstract (“Summary”) Descriptive Abstract (“Abstract”) Executive Abstract Summarizing Information for Social Media CHECKLIST Summaries PROJECTS Part 3 Organization, Style, and Visual Design 10 Organizing for Readers The Typical Shape of Workplace Documents Outlining An Outlining Strategy The Formal Outline GUIDELINES for Outlining Storyboarding Paragraphing The Support Paragraph The Topic Sentence Paragraph Unity Paragraph Coherence Paragraph Length Chunking Providing an Overview Organizing for Social Media and Global Audiences CHECKLIST Organizing Information PROJECTS 11 Editing for a Professional Style and Tone Editing for Clarity Avoid Ambiguous Pronoun References Avoid Ambiguous Modifiers Unstack Modifying Nouns Arrange Word Order for Coherence and Emphasis Use Active Voice Whenever Possible Use Passive Voice Selectively Avoid Overstuffed Sentences Editing for Conciseness Avoid Wordy Phrases Eliminate Redundancy Avoid Needless Repetition Avoid There Sentence Openers Avoid Some It Sentence Openers Delete Needless Prefaces Avoid Weak Verbs Avoid Excessive Prepositions Avoid Nominalizations Make Negatives Positive Clean Out Clutter Words Delete Needless Qualifiers Editing for Fluency Combine Related Ideas Vary Sentence Construction and Length Use Short Sentences for Special Emphasis Finding the Exact Words Prefer Simple and Familiar Wording Avoid Useless Jargon Use Acronyms Selectively Avoid Triteness Avoid Misleading Euphemisms Avoid Overstatement Avoid Imprecise Wording Be Specific and Concrete Use Analogies to Sharpen the Image Adjusting Your Tone GUIDELINES for Deciding about Tone Consider Using an Occasional Contraction Address Readers Directly Use I and We When Appropriate Prefer the Active Voice Emphasize the Positive Avoid an Overly Informal Tone Avoid Personal Bias Avoid Biased Language GUIDELINES for Avoiding Biased Language Global, Legal, and Ethical Implications of Style and Tone Digital Writing and Editing CHECKLIST Style PROJECTS 12 Designing Visual Information Why Visuals Matter When to Use Visuals and How to Choose the Right Ones When to Use Visuals Types of Visuals to Consider Choosing the Right Visual Using Software to Create Visuals Tables How to Construct a Table Graphs Bar Graphs SIMPLE BAR GRAPH MULTIPLE-BAR GRAPH HORIZONTAL-BAR GRAPH STACKED-BAR GRAPH 100 PERCENT BAR GRAPH 3-D BAR GRAPH Line Graphs SIMPLE LINE GRAPH MULTILINE GRAPH DEVIATION LINE GRAPH BAND OR AREA GRAPH MULTIPLE-BAND GRAPH GUIDELINES for Creating Tables and Graphs Charts Pie Charts Organization Charts Flowcharts Tree Charts Gantt and PERT Charts Pictograms GUIDELINES for Creating Charts Graphic Illustrations Diagrams EXPLODED DIAGRAMS CUTAWAY DIAGRAMS BLOCK DIAGRAMS Photographs Maps Symbols and Icons Infographics GUIDELINES for Creating Graphic Illustrations Using Color and Presenting Visuals Use Color to Organize Use Color to Orient Use Color to Emphasize GUIDELINES for Incorporating Color Presenting Visuals GUIDELINES for Presenting Visuals Ethical Considerations Present the Real Picture Present the Complete Picture Don’t Mistake Distortion for Emphasis Use Copyright Free Visuals or Credit the Work of Others GUIDELINES for Obtaining and Citing Visual Material Social Media and Visuals CHECKLIST Visuals PROJECTS 13 Designing Pages and Documents Page Design in Print and Digital Workplace Documents Design Skills Needed by Technical Communicators Page Design Programs Using Styles and Templates Using Style Guides and Style Sheets Creating a Design That Works for Your Readers Shaping the Page PROVIDE PAGE NUMBERS, HEADERS, AND FOOTERS USE A GRID USE WHITE SPACE TO CREATE AREAS OF EMPHASIS PROVIDE AMPLE MARGINS USE AN APPROPRIATE LINE LENGTH KEEP LINE SPACING CONSISTENT TAILOR EACH PARAGRAPH TO ITS PURPOSE MAKE LISTS FOR EASY READING GUIDELINES for Shaping the Page Styling the Words and Letters SELECT AN APPROPRIATE TYPEFACE USE TYPE SIZES THAT ARE EASY TO READ USE FULL CAPS SPARINGLY GUIDELINES for Styling the Words and Letters Adding Emphasis GUIDELINES for Adding Emphasis Using Headings for Access and Orientation LAY OUT HEADINGS BY LEVEL DECIDE HOW TO PHRASE YOUR HEADINGS MAKE HEADINGS VISUALLY CONSISTENT AND GRAMMATICALLY PARALLEL GUIDELINES for Using Headings Audience Considerations in Page Design Designing Digital Documents PDF files Web Pages Smartphones and Tablets Social Media Posts CHECKLIST Page Design PROJECTS Part 4 Specific Documents and Applications 14 Email, Texts, and Instant Messaging Email Basics and Types Considering Audience and Purpose Email Parts and Format Email Style and Tone Interpersonal Issues and Email Choose the Right Approach for the Situation Email and External Audiences Ethical, Legal, and Global Issues When Using Email GUIDELINES for Writing and Using Email CHECKLIST Email Texts, Chats, and Instant Messaging GUIDELINES for Texts CHECKLIST Text, Chats, and Instant Messaging PROJECTS 15 Workplace Memos and Letters Memo Basics, Audience, and Purpose Memo Parts and Format Memo Tone Common Types of Memos Transmittal Memo Summary or Follow‐up Memo Routine Miscellaneous Memo GUIDELINES for Memos CHECKLIST Memos Letter Basics, Audience, and Purpose Letter Parts, Formats, and Design Elements Standard Parts HEADING AND DATE INSIDE ADDRESS SALUTATION TEXT COMPLIMENTARY CLOSING SIGNATURE Optional Parts ATTENTION LINE SUBJECT LINE TYPIST’S NOTATION ENCLOSURE NOTATION COPY (OR DISTRIBUTION) NOTATION POSTSCRIPT Formats and Design Features LETTER FORMAT QUALITY STATIONERY UNIFORM MARGINS AND SPACING HEADERS FOR SUBSEQUENT PAGES THE ENVELOPE Letter Tone Establish and Maintain a “You” Perspective Be Polite and Tactful Use Plain English Decide on a Direct or Indirect Organizing Pattern Global and Ethical Considerations When Writing Letters GUIDELINES for Letters in General Conveying Bad or Unwelcome News in Letters GUIDELINES for Conveying Bad News Common Types of Letters Inquiry Letters GUIDELINES for Inquiry Letters Claim Letters GUIDELINES for Claim Letters Sales Letters GUIDELINES for Sales Letters Adjustment Letters GUIDELINES for Adjustment Letters CHECKLIST Letters PROJECTS 16 Résumés and Other Job‐Search Materials Assessing Your Skills and Aptitudes Researching the Job Market Plan Your Strategy Focus Your Search Explore Employment Resources Learn to Network Résumés Parts of a Résumé CONTACT INFORMATION CAREER OBJECTIVES EDUCATION WORK EXPERIENCE PERSONAL DATA AND INTERESTS REFERENCES PORTFOLIOS Using Templates Organizing Your Résumé GUIDELINES for Writing and Designing Your Résumé Application Letters Solicited Application Letters Unsolicited Application Letters GUIDELINES for Application Letters Submitting Your Job Application Documents CONSIDER THIS Your Social Media Profile and the Job Search GUIDELINES for Online Job Applications Dossiers and Portfolios Dossiers Portfolios GUIDELINES for Dossiers and Portfolios Interviews and Follow‐Up Communication Interviews Follow‐Up Communication THANK YOU NOTES ACCEPTANCE OR REFUSAL LETTERS GUIDELINES for Interviews and Follow‐Up Communication CHECKLIST Résumés CHECKLIST Application Letters CHECKLIST Supporting Materials PROJECTS 17 Technical Definitions Considering Audience and Purpose Legal, Ethical, Societal, and Global Implications Types of Definition Parenthetical Definitions Sentence Definitions Expanded Definitions Methods for Expanding Definitions Etymology History Negation Operating Principle Analysis of Parts Visuals Comparison and Contrast Required Conditions Examples Using Multiple Expansion Methods AN EXPANDED DEFINITION FOR SEMITECHNICAL READERS AN EXPANDED DEFINITION FOR NONTECHNICAL READERS Placing Definitions in a Document GUIDELINES for Definitions CHECKLIST Definitions PROJECTS 18 Technical Descriptions, Specifications, and Marketing Materials Considering Audience and Purpose Objectivity in Technical Descriptions Elements of Descriptions Clear and Limiting Title Appropriate Level of Detail and Technicality Visuals Clearest Descriptive Sequence SPATIAL SEQUENCE FUNCTIONAL SEQUENCE CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE Types of Technical Descriptions A Complex Product Description A Complex Process Description GUIDELINES for Descriptions Specifications Types of Specifications Considering Audience and Purpose GUIDELINES for Specifications Technical Marketing Materials GUIDELINES for Technical Marketing Materials CHECKLIST Technical Descriptions CHECKLIST Specifications CHECKLIST Technical Marketing Materials PROJECTS 19 Instructions and Procedures Considering Audience and Purpose Formats for Instructional Documents Faulty Instructions and Legal Liability Elements of Effective Instructions Clear and Limiting Title Informed and Accurate Content Visuals Appropriate Level of Detail and Technicality PROVIDE BACKGROUND PROVIDE ADEQUATE DETAIL OFFER EXAMPLES INCLUDE TROUBLESHOOTING ADVICE GUIDELINES for Providing Appropriate Detail in Instructions Logically Ordered Steps Notes and Hazard Notices Readability USE DIRECT ADDRESS, ACTIVE VOICE, AND IMPERATIVE MOOD USE SHORT AND LOGICALLY SHAPED SENTENCES USE PARALLEL PHRASING PHRASE INSTRUCTIONS AFFIRMATIVELY USE TRANSITIONS TO MARK TIME AND SEQUENCE Effective Design GUIDELINES for Designing Instructions Introduction‐Body‐Conclusion Structure INTRODUCTION BODY: REQUIRED STEPS CONCLUSION Online and Social Media Instructions Online Instructions Social Media Instructions Context‐Senstive Help Procedures Evaluating the Usability of Instructions and Procedures Usability and the User Experience Approaches for Evaluating a Document’s Usability THINK‐ALOUD EVALUATION FOCUS GROUPS CHECKLIST Instructions and Procedures PROJECTS 20 Informal Reports Informal versus Formal Reports Informational versus Analytical Reports Types of Informational Reports Progress Reports GUIDELINES for Progress Reports Periodic Activity Reports GUIDELINES for Periodic Activity Reports Trip Reports GUIDELINES for Trip Reports Meeting Minutes GUIDELINES for Meeting Minutes Types of Analytical Reports Feasibility Reports GUIDELINES for Feasibility Reports Recommendation Reports GUIDELINES for Recommendation Reports Justification Reports GUIDELINES for Justification Reports Peer Review Reports GUIDELINES for Peer Review Reports CHECKLIST Informal Reports PROJECTS 21 Formal Analytical Reports Considering Audience and Purpose Typical Analytical Problems Causal Analysis: “Why Does X Happen?” CASE The Reasoning Process in Causal Analysis Comparative Analysis: “Is X OR Y Better for Our Needs?” CASE The Reasoning Process in Comparative Analysis Feasibility Analysis: “Is This a Good Idea?” CASE The Reasoning Process in Feasibility Analysis Combining Types of Analysis Elements of an Effective Analysis Clearly Identified Problem or Purpose Adequate but Not Excessive Data Accurate and Balanced Data Fully Interpreted Data Subordination of Personal Bias Appropriate Visuals Valid Conclusions and Recommendations Self‐Assessment Structuring a Formal Report Introduction Body Conclusion Front Matter and End Matter Supplements Front Matter LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL TITLE PAGE TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ABSTRACT OR EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Text of the Report End Matter GLOSSARY APPENDICES REFERENCES OR WORKS CITED LIST A Situation Requiring an Analytical Report The Situation Audience and Use Profile GUIDELINES for Reasoning through an Analytical Problem CHECKLIST Analytical Reports PROJECTS 22 Proposals Considering Audience and Purpose The Proposal Process CASE Submitting a Competitive Proposal Types of Proposals Planning Proposals Research Proposals Sales Proposals Elements of a Persuasive Proposal A Forecasting Title or Subject Line Background Information Statement of the Problem Description of Solution A Clear Focus on Benefits Honest and Supportable Claims Appropriate Detail Readability A Tone That Connects with Readers Visuals Accessible Page Design Supplements Tailored for a Diverse Audience Proper Citation of Sources and Contributors Structuring a Proposal Introduction Body Conclusion A Situation Requiring a Formal Proposal The Situation Audience and Use Profile GUIDELINES for Proposals CHECKLIST Proposals PROJECTS 23 Presentations and Video Conferencing Advantages and Drawbacks of Presentations Avoiding Presentation Pitfalls Planning Your Presentation Analyze Your Audience and Purpose Analyze Your Speaking Situation Select a Type of Presentation INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS TRAINING/INSTRUCTIONAL PRESENTATIONS PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS ACTION PLAN PRESENTATIONS SALES PRESENTATIONS Select a Delivery Method THE MEMORIZED DELIVERY THE IMPROMPTU DELIVERY THE SCRIPTED DELIVERY THE EXTEMPORANEOUS DELIVERY Preparing Your Presentation Research Your Topic Aim for Simplicity and Conciseness Anticipate Audience Questions Outline Your Presentation INTRODUCTION BODY CONCLUSION Planning Your Visuals and Choosing a Media Format Decide Which Visuals to Use and Where to Use Them Create a Storyboard Use Visuals That Work for the Presentation Environment BE SELECTIVE MAKE VISUALS EASY TO READ AND UNDERSTAND USE THE RIGHT APP TO PREPARE YOUR VISUALS Choose the Right Media Format Using Presentation Apps Effectively When and How to Use Handouts Ethics and the Use of Presentation Apps CASE PowerPoint and the Space Shuttle Columbia Disaster GUIDELINES for Using Presentation Apps Delivering Your Presentation Rehearse Your Delivery Check the Room and Setting Beforehand Cultivate the Human Landscape GET TO KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE BE REASONABLE DISPLAY ENTHUSIASM AND CONFIDENCE DON’T PREACH Keep Your Listeners Oriented OPEN WITH A CLEAR AND ENGAGING INTRODUCTION GIVE CONCRETE EXAMPLES PROVIDE EXPLICIT TRANSITIONS REVIEW AND INTERPRET Plan for How You Will Use Any Additional Visual Aids PREPARE ORGANIZE AVOID LISTENER DISTRACTION Manage Your Presentation Style USE NATURAL MOVEMENTS AND REASONABLE POSTURES ADJUST VOLUME, PRONUNCIATION, AND RATE LOOK AT YOUR AUDIENCE Manage Your Speaking Situation BE RESPONSIVE TO LISTENER FEEDBACK STICK TO YOUR PLAN LEAVE LISTENERS WITH SOMETHING TO REMEMBER ALLOW TIME FOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (Q & A) CONSIDER THIS Cross‐Cultural Audiences May Have Specific Expectations GUIDELINES for Delivering a Presentation and Managing Listener Questions Video Presentations GUIDELINES for Video Presentations CHECKLIST Presentations PROJECTS 24 Web Pages and Social Media Considering Audience and Purpose Audience as Contributor Writing and Designing Web Pages How People Read Web Pages Writing for Web Pages GUIDELINES for Writing Web Pages Designing Web Pages STORYBOARDING FOR WEB SITES APPS FOR CREATING WEB PAGES TEAMWORK WHEN CREATING WEB SITES GUIDELINES for Designing Web Pages Writing and Designing for Social Media Personal versus Workplace Uses of Social Media Blogs Customer Review Sites Facebook Instagram LinkedIn and Other Job Sites YouTube X (formerly known as Twitter) GUIDELINES for Writing and Using Social Media Instructional Videos for Social Media GUIDELINES for Creating Instructional Videos for Social Media Credibility and Legal Issues CHECKLIST Writing and Designing for the Web and Social Media PROJECTS Part 5 Resources for Technical Writers Appendix A: A Quick Guide to Documentation Taking Notes Guidelines for Taking Notes Quoting the Work of Others Guidelines for Quoting Paraphrasing the Work of Others Guidelines for Paraphrasing What You Should Document How You Should Document MLA Documentation Style MLA Parenthetical References MLA Works Cited Entries MLA Sample Works Cited Pages Discussion of Figure A.4 APA Documentation Style APA Parenthetical References APA Reference List Entries APA Sample Reference List Discussion of Figure A.5 Appendix B: A Quick Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics Grammar Sentence Fragments Run‐On Sentences Comma Splices Faulty Agreement—Subject and Verb Faulty Agreement—Pronoun and Referent Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers Faulty Parallelism Faulty Coordination Faulty Subordination Faulty Pronoun Case Punctuation Period Question Mark Exclamation Point Semicolon Colon Comma Apostrophe Quotation Marks Ellipses Brackets Italics Parentheses Dashes Mechanics Abbreviation Hyphenation Capitalization Numbers and Numerals Spelling Usage Transitions Use Transitional Expressions Repeat Key Words and Phrases Use Forecasting Statements Lists Embedded Lists Vertical Lists Works Cited Text Credits Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z