Temporary Structures in Construction, Third Edition

The most complete and current guide to temporary structures in design and construction With significant revisions, updates, and new chapters, "Temporary Structures in Construction," Third Edition presents authoritative information on professional practice, codes, standards, design, erection, maintenance, and failures of temporary support and access structures used in construction. New developments and advancing technologies are discussed throughout the book, and new chapters on construction and environmental loads, cranes, and lessons learned from temporary structure failures have been added. Improve the quality, safety, speed, and financial success of construction projects with help from this practical resource. Inside, 26 expert contributors cover: Professional and business practices Standards, codes, and regulations Construction and environmental loads Construction site safety Legal aspects Cofferdams Earth-retaining structures Diaphragm/slurry walls Construction dewatering Underground/tunneling supports Underpinning Roadway decking Construction ramps, runways, and platforms Scaffolding Shoring/falsework Concrete formwork Bracing and guying for stability Bridge falsework Temporary structures in repair and restoration Cranes Protection of site, adjacent areas, and utilities Failure of temporary structures in construction Temporary Structures in Construction About the Editor Contents Contributors Preface Suggestions to the Instructor Part 1: Business, Safety, and Legal Aspects Chapter 1: Professional and Business Practices Introduction Professional Practices Sequence of Construction Design Rules, Regulations, and Industry Practices Specifications Permits Shop Drawings Supervision Inspection Estimation Business Practices Contract Negotiations Who Pays for the Unexpected in Underground Construction? Extras Unit Prices Negotiation by Lump Sum Cost of Labor and Material Plus Markup Contractor’s Insurance Liability Insurance Bonding Cost Analysis Purchasing Subcontracting Financial Controls and Banking Safety Codes and Regulations Professional and Business Advice Chapter 2: Standards, Codes, and Regulations General Overview of Standards, Codes, and Regulations National Standards, Specifications, and Codes National Standards American National Standard for Construction and Demolition Operations, ANSI A10 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-10 Design Loads on Structures During Construction, SEI/ASCE 37-02 Design Codes and Specifications AISC Specifications and Code of Standard Practice AASHTO Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications State and Local Codes Related Foreign Standards Canada Great Britain Osha and State Regulations Subpart L—Scaffolding Subpart P—Excavations Subpart Q—Concrete and Masonry Construction Recommended Practice and Guidelines References Bibliography Chapter 3: Construction and Environmental Loads Purpose and Scope General Considerations for Loads Load Factors and Load Combinations Loading Types Strength Design Load Combinations Allowable Stress Load Combinations Additional Considerations Dead Loads Live Loads Construction Loads Equipment Loads Erection and Fitting Forces Material Loads Worker and Personal Equipment Loads Reduction in Construction Loads Environmental Loads Risk Category Wind Loads Thermal Loads Snow Loads Earthquake Loads Rain Loads Ice Loads Acknowledgment References Chapter 4: Construction Site Safety Introduction Construction Accidents, Injuries, and Fatalities Areas of Interest to Architects and Engineers General Fall Protection Steel Concrete Osha Construction Standards Causes and Prevention of Construction Failures Kinds of Failures Construction Deficiencies Structural Design Errors Safety Program Elements Management Leadership and Employee Involvement Worksite Analysis Hazard Prevention and Control Safety and Health Training Chapter 5: Legal Aspects Legal Relationships Responsibilities All Parties The Owner The Contractor The Designer The Construction Manager Responsibility for Design Adequacy Licensed Site Professionals and Controlled Inspection Insurance Problems Contracts Forms of Contracts Legal Problems in Contracts Subcontracting Claims: The Unexpected in Underground Construction Informal Dispute Resolutions Arbitration Mediation Minitrial Dispute Review Boards Observations Protection of Utilities Protection of Adjacent Premises Trespass Part 2: Design, Construction, and Maintenance Chapter 6: Cofferdams Introduction Design Considerations Hydrostatic Pressure Forces Due to Soil Loads Current Force on Structure Wave Forces Ice Forces Static Ice Force Dynamic Ice Forces Seismic Loads Accidental Loads Scour Protection in Flood and Storm Cofferdam Concepts Cofferdam Construction Stages Typical Cofferdam Construction Sequence Predredging (Stage 1) Temporary Support Piles and Bracing Frames (Stages 2 and 3) Steel Sheet Piles (Stages 4 and 5) Tie and Block Sheet Piles (Stage 6) Excavation (Stage 7) Pile Installation (Stage 8) Leveling Course (Stage 9) Underwater Concrete Seal (Stage 10) Check Blocking (Stage 11) Dewatering (Stage 12) Construct New Structure (Stage 13) Flood Cofferdam (Stage 14) Removal of Sheet Piling (Stage 15) Removal of Bracing (Stage 16) Backfill (Stage 17) Cofferdams Founded on Rock or Through Boulders Cellular Cofferdams Concrete Slurry Wall Cofferdams Bibliography Chapter 7: Earth-Retaining Structures Introduction Types of Retaining Structures Steel Sheet Piling Slide Rail Systems Soldier Pile Walls with Horizontal Lagging Micropile Walls Advantages and Limitations Types of Micropile Walls Equipment and Materials Installation Procedures Secant Pile Walls Advantages and Limitations Construction Sequence Types of Secant Pile Walls Equipment Concrete Mix Design Wall Construction Methods Quality-Control Measures Deep Soil Mix Walls Advantages and Limitations Equipment Soil-Cement Mix Design Wall Construction Method Quality Control Soil Nail Walls Construction Methods Vertical Wood Sheeting Walls Trench Boxes and Shielding Diaphragm Walls Retaining Wall Bracing Systems Wales Tiepoint/Thru-Tie Connections Internal Bracing Tieback Anchor Systems Tieback Anchor Tendons Drilling for Tieback Anchors Grouted Tieback Anchors Mechanical Tieback Anchors Berms Freezing and Grouting Ground Freezing Advantages and Limitations Freezing Method Quality Control Jet Grouting Advantages and Limitations Equipment Grout Mix Design Installation Method Quality Control Evaluation of Site Conditions Topography Soil and Groundwater Rock Adjacent Structures and Utilities Design Earth-Pressure Theories Cantilever Wall Design Anchored/Braced Wall Design Soldier Pile Design Lagging Design Steel Sheet Piling Design Commonly Used Pressure Distributions Base Stability Moment Reduction Allowable Overstress Factors of Safety Load and Resistance Factor Design Bibliography Chapter 8: Diaphragm/Slurry Walls General Definition History Uses and Advantages Installation Jobsite Planning Use of Excavation Fluids Properties and Preparation of Bentonite Slurry Guide Walls Excavation Tools Buckets Reverse Circulation System Jointing of Panels Reinforcement Tremie Concreting Wall Bracing Systems Construction Problems Surface Appearance Misalignment Permeability Excavation Cave-in Concreting Problems Performance Watertightness Structural Performance Applications and Uses Analysis and Design Lateral Earth Pressures Structural Analysis and Design Continuous Beam on Rigid Support Continuous Beam on Nonrigid Supports Beam on Elastic Foundation Finite-Element Methods Limit Analysis Estimation of Wall and Ground Movements Practical Considerations in Design References Bibliography Chapter 9: Construction Dewatering and Groundwater Control Introduction History of Dewatering Factors Involved in Dewatering Defining the Dewatering Objective Soils and Rock Characteristics Geology, Geography, and Meteorology Hydrology Adjacent Structures Dewatering Methods Open Pumping Methods: Sumps, Ditches, Trenches Wellpoints Deep Wells Ejectors Horizontal Dewatering Installations Wick Drains Recharging Dewatering Design and Design Considerations Relevant Hydrogeological Parameters Aquifer Types and Their Behaviors Calculating Total System Flowrate Determining the Number and Spacing of Dewatering Devices Aquifer Pumping Tests in Design Groundwater Modeling Factor of Safety Design Considerations Instrumentation Potential for System Fouling Potential Adverse Effects of Dewatering Cost Considerations Materials of Construction System Installation, Operation, and Removal Jetting and Drilling—Installation of Wells and Wellpoints Piping Systems and Pumping Stations Powering a Dewatering System System Operation System Removal Cost Elements of Dewatering Mobilization, Coordination, and Responsibilities Labor and Materials Sequence and Duration of Work Operational Considerations Removal of Dewatering Systems Environmental Applications of Dewatering Materials Temporary Treatment Applications of Construction Dewatering in Environmental Cleanup Groundwater Cutoff and Exclusion Methods Steel Sheet Piling Slurry Trenches Structural Slurry Walls Ground Freezing Jet Grouting Permeation Grouting Bibliography Chapter 10: Underground/Tunneling Supports Introduction General Influences on Tunnel Support Loading Ground Characterization Influence of Scale—CHILE versus DIANA Time, Deformation, and Loading Groundwater Methods of Construction Construction Sequence Drill and Blast Rock TBM Soft-Ground Tunneling Soft-Ground TBMs Sequential Excavation Method (SEM) Calculating Rock or Soil Loads on Underground Openings Time Available to Install Supports Empirical Methods in Rock RSR Method Geomechanics or RMR Method Rock Mass Quality Rating or Q-System Method Empirical Methods in Soft Ground The American Method Analytical Methods Beam Spring Model The Schwartz and Einstein Method Steel Sets Circular Tunnel Supports Installation of Supports Liner Plates Steel Ribs in Rock Steel Ribs in Soil Tunnel Supports using Rockbolts Bolt Design Flat Roofs in Laminated Rock Rockbolting Circular Openings Bolting across Joints Grouted Rockbolts Passive Supports Related to Rockbolting Supplemental Materials Installation of Rock or Resin Bolts, Spiles, Friction Rock Stabilizers Considerations for Construction Expedience in Rockbolting Tunnel Supports using Shotcrete Mix Design Design of Shotcrete Support Systems Wire Reinforcement Field Practice Sprayed Concrete-Lined (SCL) Tunnels Shaft Supports Design Field Practice Risk Management of Underground and Tunnel Supports References Chapter 11: Underpinning Introduction Determining the Need for Underpinning Design Considerations Building Code and Agency Requirements Subsurface Investigations Influence Lines Precautions Settlements Caused by Underpinning Minimizing Disturbance Due to Underpinning Temporary Support with Maintenance Jacking Underpinning Piers Procedures Sequence Lintels Exposed Underpinning Overlapping Structures Underpinning of Column Footings Belled Piers Pretest Piles Procedures Jacking through Soft Clay Overcoming Difficulties in Jacking Cleaning out Piles Pretesting Bearing Capacity Bracket Pile Underpinning Installation Micropile Underpinning Pile Installation Load Transfer Helical Pile Underpinning Helical Pile Installation Slant-Augered Pile Underpinning Slurry and Secant Pile Walls Slurry Wall Secant Pile Wall Jet Grouting Ground Freezing Safety Precautions Type and Density of Soils Elevation of Groundwater Methods of Excavation Nearby Construction Operations Surcharge Loads Vibrations Construction Documents Responsibility Inspection Bibliography Chapter 12: Roadway Decking Introduction Decking Design Deck Supports Concrete or Timber Decking Structural Lumber Design Procedures Use of Actual Dimension Allowable Stresses Precast Concrete Decking Utilities Future Trends Design Considerations for Beams and Columns Design of Wood Beams Design of Simple Solid Columns Treatment of Timber Regulations and Responsibilities Drawings and Specifications Costs Chapter 13: Construction Ramps, Runways, and Platforms Introduction Definitions Design and Responsibilities Vehicular Runway Plates Timber Trestle Bridges Prefabricated Bridges Foundation Ramps One-Basement Structure Two-Basement Excavations Runways and Platforms Roads and Driveways Railroads Chapter 14: Scaffolding General Design Considerations Codes of Standard Practice 1. Wire Mesh 2. Planking 3. Wire Ropes 4. Open Sides and Ends 5. Rolling Scaffolds 6. List of ANSI Standards Design Loads Light-Duty Loading Medium-Duty Loading Heavy-Duty Loading Tube and Clamp Scaffolds Application Basic Configurations 1. Double Pole 2. Single Pole 3. Tower Scaffolds 4. Wide-Area Scaffolds (Birdcage Scaffolds) Tube and Clamp Materials Design Loads for Tube and Clamp Scaffolds System Scaffolds Components Posts (Standards) Horizontals Diagonals Application Wide-Area Scaffolds (Birdcage Scaffolds) Design Loads for System Scaffolds Design Loading of Wide-Area (Birdcage) Scaffolds Sectional Scaffolding (Welded Tubular Frame Scaffolding) Standard Accessories Codes of Standard Practice for Sectional Scaffolding Design Loads for Sectional Scaffolding Scaffold Plank Wood Scaffold Plank Prefabricated Plank Testing and Care of Wood Scaffold Plank Wood Deterioration General Applications of Scaffolds Wall Scaffolds Rolling Towers (Mobile Scaffolds) Interior Scaffolds Outrigger Scaffolds Shipbuilding Scaffolds (Steel) Wood Built-up Scaffolds Suspended (Hanging) Scaffolds Multi-Point Suspension Scaffolds Two-Point Suspension Scaffolds (Swing Stages) Platforms Rigging Single-Point Suspension Bosun Chairs Safety Considerations for Suspended Scaffolds Other Applications Safe Practices Guardrail Systems Toeboards Planking Ladders Why Scaffolds Collapse Bibliography Chapter 15: Falsework/Shoring Frame Shoring The Solution Heavy-Duty Shoring Frames Shoring Towers Accessories Stability of Towers Screw-Leg Extensions Extralong Screw Legs Other Extension Devices Self-Weight of Shoring Frame Layouts Shoring Design Example (Standard Frames) Conclusions Ledgers—Standard Frames Conclusions Examination of Nonoptional Ledger Size Shoring Design Example Using Aluminum Joists and Ledgers (Heavy-Duty Frames) Conclusions Ledgers—Heavy-Duty Frames Conclusions Economics of Heavy-Duty Frames Estimating Rental Costs Frame Height Stackup Mud Sills and Shoring Bases Reshoring The Empirical Approach The Analytical Approach Some Practical Comments on Reshoring Monitoring Reshoring Loads Standardization of Shoring Frame Tests and Determination of Safe Allowable Loads Single-Post Shores Ledger Bracing Layout Stripping Post-shore Formwork Post and Beam Shoring System Post Ledger and Panel Shoring System Post and Panel System Modular Shoring System Flying Shoring Systems Flying Truss Systems The Forming Cycle Stripping Floor Movement of Forms Flying Landing Shoring Design Loads Vertical Loads Horizontal Loads Shoring Posttensioned Construction Procedures Shoring in Alteration Work Erection Tolerances Falsework Drawings General Notes Fire Protection New Product Trends Aluminum Shoring Trusses Aluminum Shoring Joists Aluminum Shoring Ledgers (Stringers) Aluminum Shoring Frames Single-Post Aluminum Shores The Scaffolding, Shoring, and Forming Institute, Inc. References Chapter 16: Concrete Formwork Introduction Design Loads Some Design Considerations Jobsite Conditions Formwork Materials Handset Modular Forms Gang Forms and Ties Tie Systems Types of Forms Wall-Form Components Waling and Aligning Scaffolds Lifting Column and Pier Forms Beam Forms Core Forms Curved-Wall Forms Blind and One-Side Forms Sloping Forms Bulkheads with Waterstops Cantilever Forms Architectural-Concrete Forms Underwater Forming Battered Wall Forms Custom Forms Forms for Prestressed Concrete Form-Release Agents Form Removal Tolerances Drawings and Specifications Safety Inspection Forming Economics The Key to Material Cost: Reuse Life Productivity: The Key to Labor Costs Rental + Productivity = Small-Job Success Reuse the Ties to Control Tie Costs Bridge Formwork Form Lifting Systems Slipforming New Construction Methods and Formwork Development Garage Building System Room Tunnel System Mole Method Automation Composite Columns Reference Chapter 17: Bracing and Guying for Stability Introduction—The Role of Bracing and Guying in Temporary Structures Differences between Bracing, Guying, and Shoring Distinction between Temporary and Permanent Installations Applications of Temporary Guying and Bracing Comparison of Guys versus Braces Guying Materials Guying Behavior Wire Rope Hardware Material for Bracing Uses of Guys and Braces in Temporary Applications Stabilization and Plumbing during Steel Erection Cast-in-Place Concrete Stabilization during Demolition and Renovation Emergency Stabilization Loads and Load Combinations Codes, Standards, and References Wind Loads Structural Stability Equipment and Inertia Loads Other Loads Allowable Stress Design versus Load Factor Design Examples Example 1—Guy Design for Shoring Tower 1. Determine Design Loads 2. Design Cable Guys 3. Check Additional Guy Forces Due to P-D Example 2—Stabilization of Distressed Building Using Long Braces 1. Determine Design Loads 2. Size Raker Shore Using Wide Flange Shape 3. Design Lateral Bracing Bibliography Chapter 18: Bridge Falsework Overview Falsework Systems Design Loads Vertical Loads Prestressing Forces Horizontal Loads Wind loads Impact Loads Falsework Stability Transverse Stability Longitudinal Stability Falsework Design Allowable Stresses Structural Steel Timber Stringer Beams Steel Beam Design Camber Strips Beam Continuity Beam Bracing Timber Beams Falsework Post Timber Post Steel Posts Proprietary System Cap and Sill Beams Falsework Bracing Timber Braces Steel Bracing Cable Bracing Falsework Foundation Soil-Bearing Value Timber Pads Concrete Pads Corbels Sand Jacks Foundation Piles Falsework Construction Falsework Erection Falsework Removal Falsework Alternatives Cast-in-Place Segmental Construction Precast Segmental Construction Bibliography Chapter 19: Temporary Structures in Repair and Restoration General Planning Review Documentation Walk-through Organize Job Subsurface Preparation Access and Stability Utilities Drainage Protection Adjacent Facilities Bridging over Excavations Pedestrians Existing to Save Demolition Types Dust Control Debris Scaffolding, Bracing, and Shoring Exterior Scaffolding Interior Scaffolding Older Facades Bracing and Shoring Masts, Mast Climbers, and Hoists Ladders and Temporary Stairways Temporary Openings Notable Recent Projects Grand Central Terminal Baltimore Basilica Augusta Sportswear 1717 Rhode Island Ave, Washington, D.C. Westin Hotel, Atlanta, Georgia Perry Memorial Summary Attributions Bibliography Chapter 20: Cranes Crane and Rigging Basics Definitions Temporary versus Permanent The Basic Hoisting System Winches, Ropes, and Sheaves Wire Rope Wire Rope Fittings Lifting Machines and their Accessories Derricks Mobile Cranes Crawler Cranes Truck Cranes Attachments and Accessories Jibs Heavy-Lift Attachments Tower Cranes Hammerheads and Luffers Base Mountings Self-Erecting Cranes Installation and Operation Mobile Crane Deployment and Use Travel within the Site Clearances and Reach Drift Ground Support Cribbing Supporting Crawler Cranes Mobile Crane Picks Multiple Crane Lifts Tower Cranes That Climb Top Climbing Bracing and Guying Bottom Climbing Safety, Responsibilities, and Regulations Reducing Risks Bibliography Chapter 21: Protection of Site, Adjacent Areas, and Utilities General Practices, Liabilities Osha and other Safety Regulations Signs Barricades and Fences Heat Protection Noise Control Sidewalk Sheds Catch Platforms and Scaffolds Catch Platforms and Safety Nets Scaffolds Damage due to Construction Operations Blasting Pile Driving Dewatering Excavation Protection of Nearby Structures Bracing Wall Ties Nogging and Brickface Roof Protection Protection of Utilities Monitoring Surrounding Ground and Nearby Structures’ Conditions Bibliography Chapter 22: Leading Edge Vertical Containment Systems Overview Phase 1: Protection at the Forming Floor and Floor above Phase 2: Protection at the Striping and Forming Floors Part 3: Failures Chapter 23: Failures of Temporary Structures in Construction Construction Failures Case Histories of Temporary Structure Failures Case History 1: Riley Road Interchange Falsework Case History 2: Baltimore-Washington Expressway Shoring Towers Case History 3: 14th & H Streets, Washington, Excavation Supports Case History 4: Denver I-70 Overpass Scaffolding/Shoring Tower Case History 5: West Coast Hotel Scaffolding* Case History 6: Masons’ Scaffold Case History 7: Indianapolis Structural Steel Frame Guying* Case History 8: Brooklyn Wall Bracing Case History 9: Huntington Wall Bracing Case History 10: Wood Truss Erection Case History 11: Column Reinforcing Steel Bracing Case History 12: Bridge Demolition Case History 13: A Tower-Crane Collapse* How to Avoid Temporary Structure Failures? Attribution Bibliography Index "The most complete and current guide to temporary structures in design and constructionWith significant revisions, updates, and new chapters, Temporary Structures in Construction, Third Edition presents authoritative information on professional practice, codes, standards, design, erection, maintenance, and failures of temporary support and access structures used in construction. New developments and advancing technologies are discussed throughout the book, and new chapters on construction and environmental loads, cranes, and lessons learned from temporary structure failures have been added. Improve the quality, safety, speed, and financial success of construction projects with help from this practical resource.Inside, 26 expert contributors cover: Professional and business practices Standards, codes, and regulations Construction and environmental loads Construction site safety Legal aspects Cofferdams Earth-retaining structures Diaphragm/slurry walls Construction dewatering Underground/tunneling supports Underpinning Roadway decking Construction ramps, runways, and platforms Scaffolding Shoring/falsework Concrete formwork Bracing and guying for stability Bridge falsework Temporary structures in repair and restoration Cranes Protection of site, adjacent areas, and utilities Failure of temporary structures in construction "-- "This in-depth, up-to-date reference for the engineering/construction community describes temporary structures used in design and construction--from scaffolding to retaining walls"-- "The most complete and current guide to temporary structures in design and constructionWith significant revisions, updates, and new chapters, Temporary Structures in Construction, Third Edition presents authoritative information on professional practice, codes, standards, design, erection, maintenance, and failures of temporary support and access structures used in construction. New developments and advancing technologies are discussed throughout the book, and new chapters on construction and environmental loads, cranes, and lessons learned from temporary structure failures have been added. Improve the quality, safety, speed, and financial success of construction projects with help from this practical resource. Inside, 26 expert contributors cover: Professional and business practices Standards, codes, and regulations Construction and environmental loads Construction site safety Legal aspects Cofferdams Earth-retaining structures Diaphragm/slurry walls Construction dewatering Underground/tunneling supports Underpinning Roadway decking Construction ramps, runways, and platforms Scaffolding Shoring/falsework Concrete formwork Bracing and guying for stability Bridge falsework Temporary structures in repair and restoration Cranes Protection of site, adjacent areas, and utilities Failure of temporary structures in construction "-- Provided by publisher