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An up-to-date survey of the development, anatomy, physiology and ecology of the lichens. Each chapter and appendix has bibliography. Abstract: An up-to-date survey of the development, anatomy, physiology and ecology of the lichens. Each chapter and appendix has bibliography Title Page ......Page 4 Copyright Page......Page 5 Table of Contents......Page 6 List of Contributors......Page 12 Preface......Page 14 PART I: STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT......Page 16 I. Introduction......Page 18 II. Anatomy of the Thallus......Page 19 III. Morphology of the Thallus......Page 35 IV. Vegetative Structures and Their Development......Page 52 V. Influence of Fungus and Alga on the Habit of the Lichen......Page 68 VI. Influence of Fruiting Bodies on the Development of Thallus Tissues......Page 70 References......Page 72 I. Ascolichens......Page 74 References......Page 102 I. Introduction......Page 106 II. Systematic Criteria......Page 107 III. Modifiability and Its Taxonomic Significance......Page 124 References......Page 126 I. Introduction......Page 132 II. Vegetative Propagules......Page 133 III. Sexual Propagules......Page 134 References......Page 158 I. Introduction......Page 162 II. Cellular Structure of the Symbionts......Page 163 III. Symbiotic Relationship between Fungus and Alga......Page 182 IV. Thallus Layers and Surface Structures as Viewed with SEM......Page 185 V. Some Aspects of Changes in Ultrastructure Due to Ecological Conditions......Page 192 References......Page 194 PART II: PHYSIOLOGY OF THE INTACT THALLUS......Page 198 I. Introduction......Page 200 II. Metal Content of Lichens......Page 202 III. Concentration and Retention of Radionuclides......Page 208 IV. Uptake and Translocation of Cations......Page 226 References......Page 234 I. Introduction......Page 240 II. Biogeochemical Weathering......Page 242 III. Biogeochemical Weathering......Page 245 IV. Plant Succession and Soil Development......Page 254 Acknowledgments......Page 258 References......Page 259 I. Introduction......Page 264 II. Photosynthesis by the Intact Lichen......Page 265 III. Interactions between Lichen Symbionts......Page 272 IV. The Mobile Carbohydrate and Its Release......Page 281 V. Fate of the Transferred Carbohydrate......Page 288 VI. Carbohydrate Movement between the Symbionts......Page 291 VII. Conclusions......Page 296 References......Page 300 I. Introduction......Page 304 II. Chemical and Biochemical Analyses of Whole Thalli......Page 305 III. Assimilation of Combined Nitrogen......Page 306 IV. Fixation of Elementary Nitrogen......Page 312 VI. The Relationship of Lichens to Other Nitrogen-Fixing Symbiotic Systems......Page 318 References......Page 320 PART III: ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE ANDEFFECTS......Page 324 I. Introduction......Page 326 II. Determination of Viability and Resistance......Page 327 III. Responses to Environmental Stresses......Page 331 IV. Extreme Habitats of Lichens......Page 369 V. Conclusions......Page 381 References......Page 383 I. Introduction......Page 396 II. Water Absorption......Page 397 III. Mechanism of Water Absorption and WaterConduction to the Thallus......Page 402 IV. Water Contents of Thalli......Page 405 V. Water Loss......Page 410 VI. Conclusions......Page 412 References......Page 413 I. Introduction......Page 416 III. Substrate Factors......Page 417 IV The Lichen-Substrate Interface......Page 431 V. The Effect of Lichens on their Substrate......Page 435 VI. Substrate Specificity......Page 437 VII. Substrates and Speciation......Page 447 VIII. Summary and Conclusion......Page 450 References......Page 451 Note Added in Proof......Page 456 I. Historical......Page 458 II. Lichen Deserts......Page 460 III. Causes of Lichen Deserts......Page 468 IV. Effect of Environment......Page 474 V. Biological Estimation of Air Pollution......Page 481 References......Page 484 I. Introduction......Page 488 II. Techniques of Measuring Growth......Page 494 III. Growth Rates and Life History......Page 501 References......Page 505 PART IV: SECONDARY METABOLIC PRODUCTS......Page 508 I. Introduction......Page 510 II. Structure of Lichen Substances......Page 511 III. Recent Results......Page 534 References......Page 536 I. Introduction......Page 538 II. Biosynthesis......Page 539 III. Conclusion: The State of The Problem......Page 556 References......Page 557 I. Folklore......Page 562 III. Lichen Substances......Page 564 IV. Pharmacological Studies......Page 565 V. Antibiotics in Lichens......Page 566 References......Page 573 PART V: SYMBIONT INTERACTIONS......Page 578 I. Introduction......Page 580 II. Developmental Stages of Synthesis......Page 581 III. Physiological Relationships between the Symbionts......Page 584 IV. Lichens Synthesized in Laboratory Cultures......Page 585 V. Factors that Influence Synthesis......Page 591 References......Page 593 I. Introduction......Page 596 II. Symbiosis in Retrospect......Page 597 III. Symbiosis Achieved......Page 606 IV. Symbiosis in Prospect......Page 610 References......Page 613 I. Early Lichen Systems......Page 614 II. Parasitic Lichens, Parasymbionts, and Lichen Parasites......Page 615 III. Lichenized and Nonlichenized Fungi......Page 617 IV. Taxonomic Categories in Lichenology......Page 618 V. Proposed Classification: Ascolichens......Page 620 VI. Proposed Classification: Basidiolichens......Page 643 VII. Lichenes Imperfecta......Page 644 References......Page 645 I. Identification without Previous Isolation......Page 648 II. Isolation......Page 661 III. Identification after Previous Isolation......Page 663 References......Page 665 I. Fungal Symbiont......Page 668 II. Algal Symbiont......Page 671 References......Page 673 AUTHOR INDEX......Page 676 TAXONOMIC INDEX......Page 692 SUBJECT INDEX......Page 707 The Lichens covers the structure and development, physiology of the intact thallus, environmental response and effects, secondary metabolic products, and symbiont interactions of lichens. This book is divided into five parts encompassing 19 chapters. It also includes appendices consist of a taxonomic scheme, methods for isolating and culturing lichen symbionts and thalli, and methods for isolating and identifying lichen substances. The first part of this book describes the original fungal cell and its development into specialized cells of which the various tissues and thalli are composed. This is followed by discussions on sexual reproduction of ascolichens and basidiolichens and on systematic criteria for the definition of taxa in different hierarchical steps. This book also explains the types of propagules produced by lichens and the submicroscopical investigations of lichens, including phycobiont and mycobionts'substructure and symbiotic relationship. The second part of this book examines the physiological aspects of lichens. It includes discussions on metal cation uptake and translocation in vascular plants and on lichens'role in rock weathering and soil formation. This part also studies photosynthetic rates and nitrogen absorption and metabolism by the intact thallus of lichens. Succeeding chapters discuss physiological and morphological responses of lichens to the most important environmental factors and the relationship of these factors to lichen distribution. Substrate preferences of lichens and their causes and implications with regard to the ecology, distribution, and taxonomy of lichens are also examined. This text also discusses lichen thalli growth, methods of measurement, and factors influencing growth. Finally, the concluding parts deal with the biosynthesis of lichen substances, secondary metabolic products, and symbiotic relations of lichens to fungi and algae. This multi-authored book is an ideal source of information for researchers, teachers, and students who wish to broaden their knowledge in the diversity of lichenology.