The Syntax of Welsh (Cambridge Syntax Guides)

Welsh, like the other Celtic languages, is best known amongst linguists for its verb-initial word order and its use of initial consonant mutations. However it has many more characteristics which are of interest to syntacticians. This book, first published in 2007, provides a concise and accessible overview of the major syntactic phenomena of Welsh. A broad variety of topics are covered, including finite and infinitival clauses, noun phrases, agreement and tense, word order, clause structure, dialect variation, and the language's historical Celtic background. Drawing on work carried out in both Principles and Parameters theory and Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar, it takes contemporary colloquial Welsh as its starting point and draws contrasts with a range of literary and dialectal forms of the language, as well as earlier forms (Middle Welsh) were appropriate. An engaging guide to all that is interesting about Welsh syntax, this book will be welcomed by syntactic theorists, typologists, historical linguists and Celticists alike. Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Series-title......Page 4 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Contents......Page 9 Tables......Page 15 Preface......Page 17 List of glosses......Page 19 Other abbreviations......Page 20 1.1 The Celtic background......Page 23 1.2 The history and current position of Welsh......Page 24 1.3 Dialect variation and the literary language......Page 26 1.4.1 Welsh as a head-initial language......Page 29 1.4.2.1 Finite clauses......Page 31 1.4.2.2 Non-finite clauses......Page 35 1.4.2.3 Syntactic alignment......Page 36 1.4.3 Agreement......Page 39 1.4.4 Mutation......Page 41 1.4.5 Case and pronouns......Page 48 1.5 Research on Welsh syntax......Page 51 1.6 The structure of this book......Page 52 2.1.1 Word order and agreement......Page 54 2.1.2 Pre-verbal particles......Page 56 2.1.3 Other Celtic languages......Page 59 2.2 Auxiliary-initial clauses......Page 60 2.2.1 Aspectual clauses......Page 61 2.2.2 Gwneud-clauses......Page 63 2.2.3 Ddaru-clauses......Page 64 2.2.4 Copular clauses......Page 65 2.2.5 Syntactic tests for auxiliaries?......Page 66 2.3.2 Possible analyses......Page 70 2.3.3 Further arguments for verb-fronting......Page 73 2.4.1 Some analyses......Page 74 2.4.2 More on the arguments for verb-fronting......Page 76 2.5.1 Aspectual and copular clauses......Page 78 2.5.2 Gwneud-clauses and ddaru-clauses......Page 80 2.6.1 Null subjects......Page 82 2.6.2 Expletive subjects......Page 83 2.6.3 Further non-canonical subjects......Page 85 2.6.4 The ‘serial construction’......Page 86 2.6.5 Verbless clauses......Page 88 2.7 Conclusions......Page 89 3.1.1 The non-finite verb form......Page 90 3.1.2 Arguments against the ‘verb-noun’ categorization......Page 91 3.1.3 Verb-noun phrases as DPs......Page 95 3.2 Tensed complement clauses......Page 97 3.3.1 The distribution of bod......Page 98 3.3.2 Evidence that bod is finite......Page 100 3.4 Infinitival i-clauses with overt subjects......Page 103 3.4.1 Finite i-clauses......Page 104 3.4.2 Non-finite i-clauses......Page 107 3.5 Control predicates......Page 109 3.6.1 An apparent paradox in the distribution of i......Page 112 3.6.2 Evidence that functional i is not a preposition......Page 113 3.6.3 Two distinct i elements in infinitival clauses: complementizer i versus inflectional i......Page 116 3.6.4 Finiteness and clause structure......Page 119 3.7.1 A class of raising predicates......Page 121 3.7.2 Complementizers in raising clauses......Page 124 4 Wh-constructions......Page 126 4.1.1 The basic pattern......Page 128 4.1.2 Antiagreement in subject wh-questions......Page 129 4.1.3 Ungrammaticality of resumptive pronouns in subject and object position......Page 130 4.1.5 Object wh-questions in periphrastic clauses......Page 131 4.1.6.2 Wh-questions formed on the object position of non-finite verbs......Page 134 4.1.7 Prepositional wh-questions......Page 136 4.1.8 Possessor wh-questions......Page 138 4.1.9 Adjunct wh-questions......Page 139 4.2.1 Subject and object relatives......Page 140 4.2.3 Object-of-preposition relatives......Page 142 4.2.4 Possessor relatives......Page 143 4.2.5 Adjunct relatives......Page 144 4.3 Focus......Page 145 4.3.1 Propositional adverbs......Page 146 4.3.2 Agreement in focus constructions......Page 147 4.3.3 Fronting of verbal phrases and minor constituent types......Page 148 4.3.4 Embedded focus constructions......Page 150 4.4.1 Fronting in identity copular constructions......Page 151 4.4.2 Fronting in predicative copular constructions......Page 152 4.4.3 A.nities with wh-constructions......Page 153 4.5 Non-finite wh-constructions......Page 155 4.7 Particles in literary Welsh......Page 158 4.8 Negative wh-constructions......Page 161 4.9.1.1 The gap strategy......Page 163 4.9.1.3 The resumptive strategy......Page 165 4.9.2 Wh-constructions formed on embedded object positions......Page 166 4.9.3 Wh-constructions formed on other embedded positions......Page 167 4.9.5 Islands and subjacency......Page 168 4.9.6.1 Movement via [Spec, CP]......Page 170 4.9.6.2 Movement via [Spec, vP]......Page 172 4.10 Conclusion......Page 173 5.1 Introduction: major features of the Welsh noun phrase......Page 174 5.2 Determiners and related elements......Page 176 5.2.1 The definite article......Page 177 5.2.2 Possessive clitics......Page 179 5.2.3 Other determiners......Page 183 5.2.4 Early postdeterminers......Page 184 5.3.1 Mutations with numerals......Page 185 5.3.2 Agreement patterns with a numeral......Page 187 5.3.3 The syntax of complex numerals......Page 188 5.3.4 Noun phrases headed by numerals......Page 190 5.3.5 Numeral + o ‘of’ + plural noun......Page 192 5.3.6 Numeral-like quantifiers......Page 193 5.3.8 How much structure?......Page 196 5.4 Adjectives and demonstratives......Page 197 5.4.1 Mutations on adjectives......Page 199 5.4.2 Number and gender agreement......Page 200 5.4.3 Position of adjectives relative to the noun......Page 201 5.4.4 Order of postnominal adjectives......Page 202 5.4.5 Noun phrases headed by adjectives......Page 204 5.4.6 The ‘genitive of respect’......Page 205 5.5.1 The ‘construct-state’ effect......Page 206 5.5.2 Possessor noun phrases versus attributive noun phrases......Page 207 5.6.1 Noun-raising approaches......Page 208 5.6.3 Adjective mutation: phonology or morphosyntax?......Page 210 5.6.3.1 Multiple adjectives......Page 211 5.6.3.2 Phrasal adjectives......Page 212 5.6.3.3 Attributive noun phrases......Page 213 5.6.3.4 Distinguishing attributive noun phrases from possessor noun phrases......Page 214 5.7 Conclusion......Page 216 Soft mutation......Page 217 Nasal mutation......Page 218 Aspiration......Page 219 6.1 The basic data......Page 220 6.2.1 Coordination......Page 227 6.2.2 Focus sentences......Page 228 6.3 Generalizations......Page 230 6.4 Implications......Page 233 6.5 A Linearization-based HPSG approach......Page 237 6.6 Reflexives......Page 242 6.7 Conclusions......Page 244 7.1 Mutation environments: some basic data......Page 245 7.2 Phrase-based approaches to syntactic SM......Page 248 7.3 Early case-based approaches to syntactic SM......Page 253 7.4 Roberts’ case-linked approach......Page 257 7.5.1 Empirical issues......Page 260 7.5.2 The question of head government......Page 265 7.6 Recent work from a phrase-based perspective......Page 266 7.7.1 Case and mutation......Page 271 7.7.2 Structure and empty categories......Page 273 7.8 Conclusion: common ground?......Page 275 8.1 The syntax of bod......Page 277 8.1.1 Third-person forms......Page 278 8.1.2 Omission of finite forms of bod......Page 282 8.1.3 Analyses of bod......Page 283 8.2.1 Negation in literary Welsh......Page 285 8.2.2 Weak negative verbs and negative dependents......Page 287 8.2.3 Negative quantifiers and pseudo-quantifiers......Page 290 8.2.4 Strong negative verbs......Page 292 8.2.5 The licensing of n-words......Page 293 8.2.6 Analyses......Page 294 8.2.7 Some other negative elements......Page 295 8.3.1 The passive......Page 297 8.3.2.1 Other valency-reducing processes......Page 300 8.3.2.2 Increases in valency......Page 301 8.3.3 Impersonals......Page 304 8.4 Conclusions......Page 306 9 Historical syntax......Page 308 9.1.1 Verb-second structures......Page 309 9.1.2 Expletive subjects and the emergence of the pre-verbal particle fe......Page 319 9.1.3.1 Absolute and conjunct verbal morphology......Page 320 9.1.3.2 VSO in coordination contexts......Page 321 9.1.3.3 Verb-initial order with ‘be’......Page 324 9.2.1 Periphrastic aspectual constructions......Page 325 9.2.2 The periphrastic passive......Page 326 9.3.1 General principles of agreement......Page 327 9.3.2 Subject–verb agreement in V2-structures and the ‘mixed’ sentence......Page 328 9.3.3 The decline of null arguments......Page 329 9.4 Morphological case......Page 330 9.5 Negation......Page 331 9.5.1 The shift of negative-polarity indefinite pronouns to negative quantifiers......Page 332 9.5.2 The Welsh Jespersen’s Cycle......Page 333 9.5.3 Definite direct objects in negative sentences......Page 334 9.6.1 Direct-object mutation in Welsh......Page 335 9.6.2 Mutation of comparative adjectives in negative and interrogative clauses......Page 337 9.7.1 Delayed subjects and objects in Middle Welsh......Page 338 9.7.2 Copular constructions......Page 339 9.8 Pronouns......Page 341 9.8.1 Loss of accusative clitics......Page 344 9.8.2 Effects of phonological reduction of pronouns......Page 345 9.9.1 Embedded finite clauses......Page 348 9.9.2.1 Complement clauses to declarative and epistemic verbs......Page 349 9.9.2.2 The innovation of i-clauses......Page 352 9.10 Wh-constructions......Page 356 9.11 Noun phrases......Page 358 9.12 Conclusion......Page 359 10.1 Traditional typology: universal ordering principles and VSO languages......Page 360 10.1.1 Welsh and the Greenbergian universals......Page 361 10.1.2 Some extensions and proposed explanations......Page 369 10.2.1 Proposals by Ouhalla (1991): are the Celtic languages typologically VSO?......Page 372 10.2.1.1 Infiected infinitival clauses......Page 373 10.2.1.2 The order of tense and agreement inflections......Page 375 10.2.1.3 Subject positions and agreement......Page 377 10.2.2.1 Pre-verbal particles......Page 380 10.2.2.2 Inflected prepositions......Page 382 10.2.2.4 The lack of lexical ‘have’......Page 383 10.2.2.5 Verbless copular constructions......Page 385 10.2.2.6 The use of nominalized verb forms in place of finite verbs......Page 386 10.3 Conclusion: the derivation of verb-initial word order......Page 387 Historical Welsh texts......Page 389 Secondary Literature......Page 391 Index......Page 404 This Book Provides A Concise, Yet Comprehensive And Accessible Overview Of The Major Syntactic Phenomena Of Welsh.--jacket. The Celtic Background -- Simple Finite Classes -- Non-finite Verbs And Infinitival Clauses -- Wh-constructions -- Noun Phrases -- More On Agreement -- Syntax And Mutation -- More On Verbal Syntax -- Historical Syntax -- Welsh As A Vso Language. Robert D. Borsley, Maggie Tallerman, David Willis. Includes Bibliographical References (p. 367-381) And Index.