Thermodynamics

"This book differs from other thermodynamics texts in its objective which is to provide engineers with the concepts, tools, and experience needed to solve practical real-world energy problems. The presentation integrates computer tools (e.g., EES) with thermodynamic concepts to allow engineering students and practising engineers to solve problems they would otherwise not be able to solve. The use of examples, solved and explained in detail, and supported with property diagrams that are drawn to scale, is ubiquitous in this textbook. The examples are not trivial, drill problems, but rather complex and timely real world problems that are of interest by themselves. As with the presentation, the solutions to these examples are complete and do not skip steps. Similarly the book includes numerous end of chapter problems, both typeset and online. Most of these problems are more detailed than those found in other thermodynamics textbooks. The supplements include complete solutions to all exercises, software downloads, and additional content on selected topics. These are available at the book web site www.cambridge.org/KleinandNellis"--Provided by publisher Cover......Page 1 THERMODYNAMICS......Page 3 Tiltle......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 CONTENTS......Page 7 PREFACE......Page 17 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 19 NOMENCLATURE......Page 21 Greek Symbols......Page 25 Subscripts......Page 26 Other Notes......Page 28 THERMODYNAMICS......Page 29 1.1 Overview......Page 31 1.2 Thermodynamic Systems......Page 33 1.3.2 Measurable and Derived Properties......Page 34 1.3.4 Internal and External Properties......Page 35 1.4 Balances......Page 36 1.5 Introduction to EES (Engineering Equation Solver)......Page 38 1.6.1 The SI and English Unit Systems......Page 41 1.6.2 Working with Units in EES......Page 44 1.7.2 Pressure......Page 54 1.7.3 Temperature......Page 56 A. Balances......Page 58 B. Introduction to EES......Page 59 C. Dimensions and Units......Page 60 D. Pressure, Volume and Temperature......Page 61 2.1 Equilibrium and State Properties......Page 64 2.2 General Behavior of Fluids......Page 66 2.3.1 Saturated Liquid and Vapor......Page 71 2.3.2 Superheated Vapor......Page 77 Interpolation......Page 79 2.3.3 Compressed Liquid......Page 80 2.4.1 Thermodynamic Property Functions......Page 81 2.4.2 Arrays and Property Plots......Page 89 2.5 The Ideal Gas Model......Page 99 2.6 The Incompressible Substance Model......Page 108 A. Property Data from Tables......Page 115 B. Property Data from EES......Page 119 C. The Ideal Gas and Incompressible Fluid Models......Page 121 3.1 Conservation of Energy Applied to a Closed System......Page 122 3.2.1 Kinetic Energy......Page 123 3.3 Specific Internal Energy......Page 124 3.3.1 Property Tables......Page 125 3.3.2 EES Fluid Property Data......Page 126 3.3.3 Ideal Gas......Page 131 3.3.4 Incompressible Substances......Page 136 3.4 Heat......Page 140 3.4.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms......Page 141 3.4.2 The Caloric Theory......Page 145 3.5 Work......Page 146 3.6 What is Energy and How Can you Prove that it is Conserved?......Page 163 Problems......Page 167 A. Heat and Work......Page 168 B. Closed System Energy Balances......Page 171 C: Advanced Problems......Page 178 4.1 General Statement of the First Law......Page 181 4.2.1 Property Tables......Page 185 4.2.3 Ideal Gas......Page 186 4.3 Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics Problems......Page 189 4.4.1 Turbines......Page 193 4.4.2 Compressors......Page 195 4.4.3 Pumps......Page 196 4.4.5 Diffusers......Page 197 4.4.7 Heat Exchangers......Page 198 4.5 Analysis of Open Unsteady Systems......Page 205 A: Thermodynamic Analyses of Steady-State Applications......Page 217 B:Thermodynamic Analyses of Open Unsteady Systems......Page 221 C:Advanced Problems......Page 229 5.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 234 5.1.2 Continuous Operation......Page 237 5.1.3 Thermal Reservoir......Page 238 5.1.4 Equivalence of the Second Law Statements......Page 239 5.2 Reversible and Irreversible Processes......Page 240 5.3 Maximum Thermal Efficiency of Heat Engines and Heat Pumps......Page 247 5.4 Thermodynamic Temperature Scale......Page 250 5.5 The Carnot Cycle......Page 255 Process 2-3: Adiabatic expansion......Page 258 Cycle efficiency......Page 260 A: Maximum Efficiency......Page 262 B: Advanced Problems......Page 264 6.1 Entropy, a Property of Matter......Page 267 6.2 Fundamental Property Relations......Page 271 6.3.2 EES Fluid Property Data......Page 273 6.3.3 Entropy Relations for Ideal Gases......Page 275 6.4 A General Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 279 6.5.1 Entropy Generation......Page 287 6.5.3 Choice of System Boundary......Page 290 System Encloses all Irreversible Processes......Page 291 System Excludes all Irreversible Processes......Page 294 6.6.1 Turbine Efficiency......Page 296 6.6.2 Compressor Efficiency......Page 307 6.6.3 Pump Efficiency......Page 317 6.6.4 Nozzle Efficiency......Page 322 6.6.5 Diffuser Efficiency......Page 330 6.6.6 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness......Page 335 Heat Exchangers with Constant Specific Heat Capacity......Page 342 A. Entropy Balances......Page 352 B. Isentropic Efficiencies and Heat Exchangers......Page 364 C. Advanced Problems......Page 376 7.1 Definition of Exergy and Second Law Efficiency......Page 380 7.2 Exergy of Heat......Page 381 7.3 Exergy of a Flow Stream......Page 385 7.4 Exergy of a System......Page 391 7.5 Exergy Balance......Page 397 7.6 Relation Between Exergy Destruction and Entropy Generation......Page 408 A. Exergy and Exergy Balances......Page 409 B. Advanced Problems......Page 412 8.1 The Carnot Cycle......Page 415 8.2.1 The Ideal Rankine Cycle......Page 418 Effect of Boiler Pressure......Page 425 Effect of Heat Sink Temperature......Page 427 8.2.2 The Non-Ideal Rankine Cycle......Page 429 Reheat......Page 435 Regeneration......Page 440 8.3 The Gas Turbine Cycle......Page 456 8.3.1 The Basic Gas Turbine Cycle......Page 457 Effect of Air-Fuel Ratio......Page 463 Effect of Pressure Ratio and Turbine Inlet Temperature......Page 464 Reheat and Intercooling......Page 467 Recuperation......Page 472 Turbojet Engine......Page 482 Turbofan Engine......Page 488 8.3.4 The Combined Cycle and Cogeneration......Page 497 8.4.1 The Spark-Ignition Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine......Page 498 Spark-Ignition, Four-Stroke Engine Cycle......Page 499 Simple Model of Spark-Ignition, Four-Stroke Engine......Page 502 Octane Number of Gasoline......Page 507 Spark-Ignition, Two-Stroke Internal Combustion Engine......Page 518 8.4.2 The Compression-Ignition Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine......Page 521 8.5 The Stirling Engine......Page 531 8.5.1 The Stirling Engine Cycle......Page 532 8.5.2 Simple Model of the Ideal Stirling Engine Cycle......Page 534 8.6.1 The Heat Transfer Limited Carnot Cycle......Page 535 8.6.4 Application to other Cycles......Page 541 A. The Rankine cycle......Page 542 B: Gas Turbine Cycles......Page 548 C: Reciprocating Engines......Page 555 D: Power-Efficiency Tradeoffs......Page 556 9.1 The Carnot Cycle......Page 559 9.2.1 The Ideal Vapor Compression Cycle......Page 562 Effect of Refrigeration Temperature......Page 568 9.2.2 The Non-Ideal Vapor Compression Cycle......Page 570 Desirable Refrigerant Properties......Page 580 Appropriate Triple Point and Critical Point Temperatures......Page 581 Compatibility with Lubricants......Page 583 Refrigerant Naming Convention......Page 584 Ozone Depletion and Global Warming Potential......Page 586 9.2.4 Vapor Compression Cycle Modifications......Page 587 Liquid-Suction Heat Exchanger......Page 589 Liquid Overfed Evaporator......Page 594 Intercooled Cycle......Page 597 Economized Cycle......Page 598 Flash-Intercooled Cycle......Page 601 9.3 Heat Pumps......Page 614 9.4.1 The Basic Absorption Cycle......Page 628 9.5 Recuperative Cryogenic Cooling Cycles......Page 631 9.5.1 The Reverse Brayton Cycle......Page 633 9.5.2 The Joule-Thomson Cycle......Page 641 9.6 Regenerative Cryogenic Cooling Cycles......Page 644 A: Vapor Compression Problems......Page 645 B: Absorption, Recuperative and Regenerative Cycles......Page 650 C: Advanced Problems......Page 652 10.1 Equations of State for Pressure, Volume, and Temperature......Page 659 10.1.1 Compressibility Factor and Reduced Properties......Page 660 The Boyle Isotherm......Page 663 Critical Point Behavior......Page 664 The van der Waals Equation of State......Page 667 The Dieterici Equation of State......Page 676 The Redlich-Kwong Equation of State......Page 679 The Redlich-Kwong-Soave (RKS) Equation of State......Page 680 The Peng-Robinson (PR) Equation of State......Page 681 10.1.4 Multiple Parameter Equations of State......Page 686 10.2 Application of Fundamental Property Relations......Page 687 10.2.1 The Fundamental Property Relations......Page 688 10.2.2 Complete Equations of State......Page 689 10.3.1 Maxwells Relations......Page 700 10.3.2 Calculus Relations for Partial Derivatives......Page 702 10.3.3 Derived Relations for u, h, and s......Page 703 10.3.4 Derived Relations for other Thermodynamic Quantities......Page 711 10.3.5 Relations Involving Specific Heat Capacity......Page 715 10.4 Methodology for Calculating u, h, and s......Page 718 10.5.1 Criterion for Phase Equilibrium......Page 727 10.5.2 Relations between Properties during a Phase Change......Page 729 10.5.3 Estimating Saturation Properties using an Equation of State......Page 733 10.6 Fugacity......Page 734 10.6.1 The Fugacity of Gases......Page 736 10.6.2 The Fugacity of Liquids......Page 738 Problems......Page 740 A: Equations of State......Page 741 B. Evaluation of Properties......Page 745 C. Phase Equilibrium......Page 747 11.1.1 Composition Relations......Page 751 11.1.2 Mixture Rules for Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 753 11.2 Energy, Enthalpy, and Entropy for Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 756 11.2.1 Changes in Properties for Ideal Gas Mixtures with Fixed Composition......Page 758 11.2.2 Enthalpy and Entropy Change of Mixing......Page 759 11.3.1 Dalton's Rule......Page 768 11.3.2 Amagat's Rule......Page 769 Kay's Rule......Page 770 Mixing Rules......Page 771 11.4.1 Enthalpy and Entropy Changes of Mixing......Page 776 11.4.2 Enthalpy and Entropy Departures......Page 779 Molar Specific Enthalpy and Entropy Departures from a Two-Parameter Equation of State......Page 781 11.4.3 Enthalpy and Entropy for Ideal Solutions......Page 782 The RKS Equation of State......Page 783 The Peng-Robinson Equation of State......Page 784 11.4.5 Peng-Robinson Library Functions......Page 794 11.5.2 Chemical Potentials......Page 799 11.5.3 Evaluation of Chemical Potentials for Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 801 11.5.4 and 11.5.5 Evaluation of Chemical Potentials for Ideal Solutions and Liquid Mixtures......Page 802 11.5.6 Applications of Multi-Component Phase Equilibrium......Page 803 11.6 The Phase Rule......Page 813 A. Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 814 B. Real Fluid Mixtures......Page 816 C. Multi-component Phase Equilibrium......Page 817 12.1 Psychrometric Definitions......Page 821 12.2 Wet Bulb and Adiabatic Saturation Temperatures......Page 829 12.3.1 Psychrometric Properties......Page 832 12.3.2 The Psychrometric Chart......Page 834 12.3.3 Psychrometric Properties in EES......Page 840 12.4 Psychrometric Processes for Comfort Conditioning......Page 844 12.4.1 Humidification Processes......Page 845 12.4.2 Dehumidification Processes......Page 852 12.4.3 Evaporative Cooling......Page 857 12.4.4 Desiccants......Page 859 12.5 Cooling Towers......Page 860 12.5.1 Cooling Tower Nomenclature......Page 861 12.5.2 Cooling Tower Analysis......Page 862 A: Psychrometric Definitions......Page 868 B: Psychrometric Processes......Page 872 C: Advanced Problems......Page 879 13.1 Introduction to Combustion......Page 882 13.2 Balancing Chemical Reactions......Page 884 13.2.1 Air as an Oxidizer......Page 885 13.2.2 Methods for Quantifying Excess Air......Page 886 13.2.3 Psychrometric Issues......Page 887 13.3.1 Enthalpy of Formation......Page 894 13.3.2 Heating Values......Page 896 13.3.3 Enthalpy and Internal Energy as a Function of Temperature......Page 903 13.3.4 Use of EES for Determining Properties......Page 909 13.3.5 Adiabatic Reactions......Page 919 13.4 Entropy Considerations......Page 928 13.5 Exergy of Fuels......Page 937 A: Stoichiometry......Page 938 B: Energy Considerations......Page 940 C: Advanced Problems......Page 945 14.1 Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium......Page 952 14.2 Reaction Coordinates......Page 954 14.3.1 The Criterion of Equilibrium in terms of Chemical Potentials......Page 961 14.3.3 Equilibrium Constant and the Law of Mass Action for Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 963 14.3.4 Equilibrium Constant and the Law of Mass Action for an Ideal Solution......Page 968 14.4 Alternative Methods for Chemical Equilibrium Problems......Page 973 14.4.1 Direct Minimization of Gibbs Free Energy......Page 974 14.4.2 Lagrange Method of Undetermined Multipliers......Page 979 14.5 Heterogeneous Reactions......Page 983 14.6 Adiabatic Reactions......Page 984 A: Simple Reactions......Page 997 B. Simultaneous and Heterogeneous Reactions......Page 999 15 Statistical Thermodynamics......Page 1002 15.1.1 Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 1003 15.1.2 Extension to Particles......Page 1005 15.2.2 Application of a Wave Equation......Page 1006 15.3 The Equilibrium Distribution......Page 1009 15.3.1 Macrostates and Thermodynamic Probability......Page 1010 15.3.2 Identification of the Most Probable Macrostate......Page 1012 15.3.3 The Significance of β......Page 1015 15.3.4 Boltzmann's Law......Page 1017 15.4.1 Definition of the Partition Function......Page 1019 15.4.2 Internal Energy from the Partition Function......Page 1020 15.4.3 Entropy from the Partition Function......Page 1021 15.4.4 Pressure from the Partition Function......Page 1022 15.5 Partition Function for an Monatomic Ideal Gas......Page 1023 15.5.1 Pressure for a Monatomic Ideal Gas......Page 1024 15.5.3 Entropy for a Monatomic Ideal Gas......Page 1025 15.6 Extension to More Complex Particles......Page 1028 15.7 Heat and Work from a Statistical Thermodynamics Perspective......Page 1031 Problems......Page 1035 Problems......Page 1039 Appendix A Unit Conversions and Useful Information......Page 1045 Appendix B Property Tables for Water......Page 1049 Appendix C Property Tables for R134a......Page 1061 Appendix D Ideal Gas & Incompressible Substances......Page 1067 Appendix E Ideal Gas Properties of Air......Page 1069 Appendix F Ideal Gas Properties of Common Combustion Gases......Page 1075 Appendix G Numerical Solution to ODEs......Page 1086 Appendix H Introduction to Maple......Page 1087 Index......Page 1089 "The objective of this comprehensive text is to provide engineers with the concepts, tools, and experience needed to solve practical real-world energy problems using modern computing tools"-- "This book differs from other thermodynamics texts in its objective which is to provide engineers with the concepts, tools, and experience needed to solve practical real-world energy problems. The presentation integrates computer tools (e.g., EES) with thermodynamic concepts to allow engineering students and practicing engineers to solve problems they would otherwise not be able to solve. The use of examples, solved and explained in detail, and supported with property diagrams that are drawn to scale, is ubiquitous in this textbook. The examples are not trivial, drill problems, but rather complex and timely real world problems that are of interest by themselves. As with the presentation, the solutions to these examples are complete and do not skip steps. Similarly the book includes numerous end of chapter problems, both typeset and online. Most of these problems are more detailed than those found in other thermodynamics textbooks. The supplements include complete solutions to all exercises, lecture slides, software downloads, and additional content on selected topics"-- Descripción del editor: "This book differs from other thermodynamics texts in its objective, which is to provide engineers with the concepts, tools, and experience needed to solve practical real-world energy problems. The presentation integrates computer tools (such as EES) with thermodynamic concepts to allow engineering students and practising engineers to solve problems they would otherwise not be able to solve. The use of examples, solved and explained in detail, and supported with property diagrams that are drawn to scale, is ubiquitous in this textbook. The examples are not trivial, drill problems, but rather complex and timely real-world problems that are of interest by themselves. As with the presentation, the solutions to these examples are complete and do not skip steps. Similarly the book includes numerous end-of-chapter problems, both typeset and online. Most of these problems are more detailed than those found in other thermodynamics textbooks. The supplements include complete solutions to all exercises, software downloads, and additional content on selected topics. These are available on the book's website www.cambridge.org/KleinandNellis." (Cambridge University Press) This book differs from other thermodynamics texts in its objective which is to provide engineers with the concepts, tools, and experience needed to solve practical real-world energy problems. The presentation integrates computer tools (e.g., EES) with thermodynamic concepts to allow engineering students and practicing engineers to solve problems they would otherwise not be able to solve. The use of examples, solved and explained in detail, and supported with property diagrams that are drawn to scale, is ubiquitous in this textbook. The examples are not trivial, drill problems, but rather complex and timely real world problems that are of interest by themselves. As with the presentation, the solutions to these examples are complete and do not skip steps. Similarly the book includes numerous end of chapter problems, both typeset and online. Most of these problems are more detailed than those found in other thermodynamics textbooks. The supplements include complete solutions to all exercises, software downloads, and additional content on selected topics. These are available at the book web site (http://www.cambridge.org/KleinandNellis) www.cambridge.org/KleinandNellis "This book differs from other thermodynamics texts in its objective which is to provide engineers with the concepts, tools, and experience needed to solve practical real-world energy problems. The presentation integrates computer tools (e.g., EES) with thermodynamic concepts to allow engineering students and practicing engineers to solve problems they would otherwise not be able to solve. The use of examples, solved and explained in detail, and supported with property diagrams that are drawn to scale, is ubiquitous in this textbook. The examples are not trivial, drill problems, but rather complex and timely real world problems that are of interest by themselves. As with the presentation, the solutions to these examples are complete and do not skip steps. Similarly the book includes numerous end of chapter problems, both typeset and online. Most of these problems are more detailed than those found in other thermodynamics textbooks. The supplements include complete solutions to all exercises, lecture slides, software downloads, and additional content on selected topics"-- Provided by publisher