Water distribution systems handbook

Front Matter......Page 1 Contributors......Page 3 Preface......Page 4 Acknowledgments......Page 6 About the Editor......Page 7 18. Reliability Analysis for Design......Page 0 Table of Contents......Page 8 1.1 Background......Page 36 1.2.1 Ancient Urban Water Supplies......Page 38 1.2.2 Status of Water Distribution Systems in the 19th Century......Page 44 1.2.3 Perspectives on Water Distribution Mains in the United States......Page 45 1.3.1 The Overall Systems......Page 51 1.3.2 System Components......Page 55 1.3.3 System Operation......Page 61 1.3.4 The Future......Page 64 References......Page 65 2.1 Introduction......Page 66 2.2 Importance of Pipeline Systems......Page 67 2.3 Numerical Models: Basis for Pipeline Analysis......Page 68 2.4 Modeling Approach......Page 69 2.4.1 Properties of Matter (What?)......Page 70 2.4.2 Laws of Conservation (How?)......Page 71 2.4.3.1 Law of Conservation of Chemical Species......Page 72 2.4.3.2 Steady Flow......Page 73 2.4.4 Newton's Second Law......Page 74 2.5 System Capacity: Problems in Time and Space......Page 75 2.6 Steady Flow......Page 78 2.6.1 Turbulent Flow......Page 80 2.6.2 Headloss Caused by Friction......Page 81 2.6.3 Comparison of Loss Relations......Page 83 2.6.4 Local Losses......Page 86 2.6.5 Tractive Force......Page 87 2.6.6 Conveyance System Calculations: Steady Uniform Flow......Page 88 2.6.7 Pumps: Adding Energy to the Flow......Page 91 2.6.8 Sample Application Including Pumps......Page 93 2.6.9 Networks - Linking Demand and Supply......Page 95 2.7 Quasi-Steady Flow: System Operation......Page 96 2.8.1 Importance of Waterhammer......Page 98 2.8.2 Cause of Transients......Page 100 2.8.3.2 Implication 2. Water is Only Slightly Compressible......Page 101 2.8.3.3 Implication 3. Local Action and Control of Valves......Page 102 2.8.4 Equation of State-Wavespeed Relations......Page 103 2.8.5 Increment of Head-Change Relation......Page 104 2.8.6 Transient Conditions in Valves......Page 105 2.8.6.1 Gate Discharge Equation......Page 106 2.8.6.2 Alternate Valve Representation......Page 107 References......Page 108 3.1.1 Overview......Page 110 3.2.1 Water Demands......Page 111 3.2.2.2 Storage......Page 116 3.2.2.5 Service Pressures......Page 117 3.2.4 Computer Models and System Modeling......Page 118 3.2.4.2 Software Packages......Page 119 3.3.1 Alignment......Page 120 3.3.3 Rights-of-Way......Page 122 3.4 Piping Materials......Page 123 3.4.1.5 Fittings......Page 124 3.4.1.6 Linings......Page 126 3.4.1.7 Coatings......Page 127 3.4.2.1 Materials......Page 128 3.4.2.3 Joints......Page 129 3.4.2.6 Linings and Coatings......Page 130 3.4.3.2 Available Sizes and Thicknesses......Page 131 3.4.3.5 Fittings......Page 132 3.4.3.6 Linings and Coatings......Page 133 3.4.4 Reinforced Concrete Pressure Pipe (RCPP)......Page 135 3.4.4.2 Prestressed Steel Cylinder Pipe, AWWA C301......Page 136 3.4.4.4 Pretensioned Steel Cylinder, AWWA C300......Page 138 3.4.5.1 Materials......Page 139 3.4.5.3 Joints......Page 140 3.4.6.1 Available Sizes and Thicknesses......Page 141 3.4.7 Pipe Material Selection......Page 142 3.5.2 Loads on Buried Pipe......Page 144 3.5.2.1 Earth Loads......Page 145 3.5.2.2 Rigid Pipe......Page 146 3.5.2.3 Flexible Pipe......Page 147 3.5.3 Thrust Restraint......Page 148 3.5.3.1 Thrust Blocks......Page 149 3.5.3.2 Restrained Joints......Page 151 3.6.1 Isolation Valves......Page 154 3.6.1.2 Butterfly Valves......Page 155 3.6.2.1 Pressure-Reducing Valve......Page 156 3.6.3 Blow-offs......Page 157 References......Page 158 4.1.1 Configuration and Components of Water Distribution Systems......Page 160 4.1.3 Network Components......Page 162 4.2.1 Series and Parallel Pipe Systems......Page 164 4.2.2 Branching Pipe Systems......Page 166 4.2.3.1 Hardy Cross Method......Page 170 4.2.3.2 Linear Theory Method......Page 176 4.2.3.3 Newton-Raphson Method and the Node Equations......Page 177 4.2.3.4 Gradient Algorithm......Page 179 4.2.3.5 Comparison of Solution Methods......Page 181 4.2.3.6 Extended-Period Simulation......Page 182 4.3.1 Governing Equations......Page 183 4.3.2.1 Loop Formulation......Page 184 4.4 Computer Modeling of Water Distribution Systems......Page 185 4.4.2 Model Calibration......Page 186 References......Page 187 5.1.1 Pump Standards......Page 189 5.1.2 Pump Definitions and Terminology......Page 190 5.1.3 Types of Centrifugal Pumps......Page 194 5.2.2.1 Hazen-Williams Equation......Page 196 5.2.2.3 Darcy-Weisbach Equation......Page 199 5.2.3 Hydraulics of Valves......Page 200 5.2.6 Variable-Speed Pumps......Page 201 5.3.1 Introduction: Discharge-Specific Speed......Page 206 5.4.1 Net Positive Suction Head Available......Page 207 5.4.2 Net Positive Suction Head Required by a Pump......Page 208 5.5 Corrected Pump Curves......Page 210 5.6.1 Row Range of Centrifugal Pumps......Page 215 5.6.3 Summary of Pump Selection......Page 216 5.7.1.1 Pump Operating Ranges......Page 218 5.7.2 Piping......Page 220 5.7.2.3 Design of Pipe Wall Thickness (Pressure Design)......Page 221 5.7.2.4 Design of Pipe Wall Thickness (Vacuum Conditions)......Page 222 5.8.1 Effect of Surge on Valve Selection......Page 223 References......Page 224 Appendix......Page 225 6.1 Introduction to Waterhammer and Surging......Page 229 6.2.2 Acoustic Velocity......Page 230 6.2.3 Joukowsky (Waterhammer) Equation......Page 231 6.3 Hydraulic Characteristics of Valves......Page 232 6.3.1 Descriptions of Various Types of Valves......Page 233 6.3.3 Definition of Hydraulic Performance of Valves......Page 234 6.3.4 Typical Geometric and Hydraulic Valve Characteristics......Page 236 6.4 Hydraulic Characteristics of Pumps......Page 237 6.4.2 Homologous (Affinity) Laws......Page 238 6.4.3 Abnormal Pump (Four-Quadrant) Characteristics......Page 240 6.4.4 Representation of Pump Data for Numerical Analysis......Page 243 6.4.5 Critical Data Required for Hydraulic Analysis of Systems with Pumps......Page 244 6.5.1 Critical Parameters for Transients......Page 246 6.5.2 Critique of Surge Protection......Page 248 6.5.3 Surge Protection Control and Devices......Page 250 6.6 Design Considerations......Page 252 6.7 Negative Pressures and Water Column Separation in Networks......Page 254 6.9.1 Case Study with One-Way and Simple Surge Tanks......Page 255 6.9.2 Case Study with Air Chamber......Page 256 6.9.3 Case Study with Air-Vacuum Breaker......Page 259 References......Page 260 7.2 Problem Definition......Page 262 7.3 Mathematical Formulation......Page 264 7.4.1 Branched Systems......Page 265 7.4.2 Looped Pipe Systems via Linearization......Page 266 7.4.3 General System Design via Nonlinear Programming......Page 268 7.4.4 Stochastic Search Techniques......Page 269 7.5 Applications......Page 270 7.6 Summary......Page 273 References......Page 274 8.2 Disinfection of New Water Mains......Page 277 8.2.3.1 The Tablet Method......Page 278 8.2.6 Disposal of Highly Chlorinated Water......Page 279 8.3.1.2 Method 2......Page 280 8.4.2 Cross-Connection Control Programs......Page 281 8.4.3.3 Atmospheric and Pressure Vacuum Breakers, and Barometric Loops......Page 282 8.4.4 Application of Backflow Preventers......Page 283 8.5.2 Flushing Procedures......Page 284 8.5.4 Alternating of Disinfectants......Page 285 References......Page 286 9.1.1 Overview......Page 288 9.1.2 Definitions......Page 289 9.2.1 Loss of Disinfectant Residual......Page 290 9.2.1.1 Disinfection Methods......Page 291 9.2.1.3 Mitigation of Disinfectant Loss......Page 292 9.2.3 Internal Corrosion......Page 293 9.2.3.2 Factors Affecting Corrosion......Page 294 9.2.3.4 Control of Corrosion......Page 295 9.2.4.2 Composition......Page 296 9.2.4.4 Treatment and Control......Page 297 9.3.2 Synoptic Monitoring......Page 298 9.4 Water-Quality Modeling......Page 302 9.4.2 Governing Equations......Page 303 9.4.2.4 Bulk Flow Reactions......Page 304 9.4.3.1 Steady-State Models......Page 305 9.4.3.2 Dynamic Models......Page 306 9.4.4.3 Reaction-Rate Data......Page 307 9.4.5.3 Uses for Hydraulic Calibration......Page 308 References......Page 309 10.2 Basic Concepts......Page 312 10.2.4 Emergency Storage......Page 313 10.2.7 Hydraulic Transient Control......Page 314 10.3.1 Floating Versus Pumped Storage......Page 315 10.3.2 Ground Versus Elevated Tank......Page 316 10.3.5 Pressurized Tanks......Page 317 10.4.1 Clearwell Storage......Page 318 10.4.3 Multiple Tanks in the Pressure Zone......Page 319 10.5.1 Setting Tank Overflow Levels......Page 320 10.5.3 Identifying Pressure Zones......Page 321 10.6.1 Trade-offs in Tank Volume Design......Page 322 10.6.3.1 Equalization Storage......Page 323 10.6.3.2 Fire Storage......Page 325 10.6.4 Staging Requirements......Page 327 10.6.5 Useful Dead Storage......Page 328 10.7.3 Overflows and Vents......Page 329 References......Page 330 11.1.1 Overview......Page 332 11.2.1.1 Loss of Disinfectant Residual......Page 333 11.2.1.3 Development of Taste and Odor......Page 334 11.2.1.6 Buildup of Iron and Manganese......Page 335 11.2.2.1 Bacterial Regrowth......Page 336 11.2.2.3 Worms and Insects......Page 337 11.2.3.2 Entry of Contaminants......Page 338 11.3.1 Ideal Flow Regimes......Page 339 11.3.3 Mixing Times......Page 340 11.3.4 Stratification......Page 341 11.3.5 Aging......Page 342 11.4.1 Routine Monitoring......Page 343 11.4.1.3 Parameters of Sediment Monitoring......Page 344 11.4.2 Sampling Methods and Equipment......Page 348 11.4.3 Monitoring Frequency and Location of Samples......Page 349 11.4.4.2 Temperature Monitoring......Page 351 11.5.1.1 Principles of Similitude......Page 354 11.5.1.2 Construction of a Model......Page 355 11.5.1.3 Types of Tracers......Page 356 11.5.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics......Page 357 11.5.2.1 Mathematical Formulations of CFD Models......Page 358 11.5.2.2 Application of CFD Models......Page 359 11.5.3.4 Application of Systems Models......Page 360 11.6.3 Flow Regimes: Complete Mix Versus Plug Flow......Page 362 11.6.3.2 Mixed Flow......Page 363 11.6.3.3 Plug Flow......Page 364 11.6.4 Stratification in Reservoirs......Page 365 11.7.1 Inspections......Page 366 11.7.2 Maintenance......Page 367 References......Page 368 12.1.1 Need for Computer Models......Page 371 12.1.3 History of Computer Models......Page 372 12.2.1.1 Network Components......Page 373 12.2.2 Compilation of Data......Page 374 12.2.2.3 Pipe Diameters......Page 375 12.2.3 Estimation of Demand......Page 376 12.2.5 Reaction-Rate Information......Page 377 12.3 Computer Model Internals......Page 378 12.3.3 Hydraulic Solution Algorithms......Page 379 12.3.5 Extended-Period Solver......Page 381 12.3.7 Output Processing......Page 382 12.4.1 Background......Page 383 12.4.2 Program Features......Page 384 12.4.3 User Interface......Page 385 12.4.4 Solver Module......Page 387 12.5 Conclusion......Page 390 References......Page 391 13.1 Introduction......Page 394 13.2 Design of Distribution Systems in the United States......Page 395 13.3 Water Quality in Networks......Page 396 13.4 Hydraulic and Water-Quality Models......Page 397 13.4.2 Dynamic Water-Quality Models......Page 398 13.5.1 North Penn Study......Page 399 13.5.1.1 Network Modeling......Page 400 13.5.1.3 Development of Dynamic Water-Quality Algoritm......Page 401 13.5.2 South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority......Page 402 13.5.2.3 Results from the Field Study......Page 406 13.5.2.6 Analysis of Sampling Results......Page 410 13.5.2.7 Modeling of Chlorine Residual......Page 414 13.5.3 Case Study of Cabool, Missouri......Page 415 13.6 Evolution of Water Quality Modeling......Page 416 13.7 Modeling Propagation of Contaminants......Page 417 13.7.1 Case Study of the North Marin Water District......Page 418 13.7.1.1 Water-Quality Study......Page 423 13.7.1.2 Modeling of Total Trihalomethane Formations......Page 424 13.7.2 Complement to the North Marin study......Page 428 13.7.3 Waterborne Outbreak in Gideon, Missouri......Page 430 13.7.3.1 Description of the System......Page 432 13.7.3.2 Identification of the Outbreak......Page 433 13.7.3.3 Possible Causes......Page 434 13.7.3.5 Performance of the System......Page 435 13.7.3.6 Propagation of the Contaminant......Page 437 13.8.2 Case Study in Southington, Connecticut......Page 438 13.9 Summary and Conclusions......Page 439 References......Page 440 14.1.2 Network Data Requirements......Page 444 14.3 Determine Estimates of the Model Parameters......Page 446 14.3.1.1 Chart the Pipe Roughness......Page 447 14.3.1.2 Field Test the Pipe Roughness......Page 449 14.3.2 Distribution of Nodal Demands......Page 452 14.3.2.1 Spatial Distribution of Demands......Page 453 14.4.1 Fire-Flow Tests......Page 455 14.4.2 Telemetric Data......Page 456 14.5 Evaluate the Results of the Model......Page 457 14.6 Perform a Macro-Level Calibration of the Model......Page 458 14.8 Perform a Macro-Level Calibration of the Model......Page 459 14.8.3 Optimization Approaches......Page 460 References......Page 464 15.1 Introduction......Page 467 15.2.1 Typical Operating Indexes......Page 468 15.2.2 Operating Criteria......Page 469 15.2.4 Emergency Operations......Page 470 15.3 Monitoring of System Performance with SCADA Systems......Page 471 15.3.1 Anatomy of a SCADA System......Page 472 15.4 Control of Water Distribution System......Page 475 15.4.1.3 Advanced Control......Page 476 15.5 Linking of SCADA Systems with Analysis and Control Models......Page 477 15.5.1 Data Requirements of Analysis and Control Models......Page 478 15.5.2 Establishment of the Link......Page 479 15.6 Use of Central Databases in System Control......Page 481 References......Page 482 16.1 Introduction......Page 483 16.2.2 Management Strategies......Page 485 16.2.3.1 Hydraulic Network Models......Page 487 16.2.3.2 Demand Forecast Models......Page 489 16.2.3.3 Control Models......Page 490 16.2.4.1 Problem Formulation......Page 491 16.2.4.2 System Classification......Page 492 16.2.5 Summary and Conclusions......Page 496 16.3 Formulations to Satisfy Water Quality......Page 498 16.4.1 Mathematical Programming Approach......Page 502 16.4.2 Simulated Annealing Approach......Page 505 16.4.3 Development of Cost Function......Page 507 16.4.4 Sample Application......Page 509 16.5 Optimal Scheduling of Booster Disinfection......Page 511 16.5.1 Background 1: Linear Superposition......Page 516 16.5.2 Background 2: Dynamic Network Water-Quality Models in a Planning Context......Page 517 16.5.4 Optimal Location and Scheduling of Booster-Station Dosage as a Mixed-Integer Linear Programming Problem......Page 519 16.5.5 Optimal Location of Booster Stations as a Maximum Set-Covering Problem......Page 521 16.5.6 Solution of the Optimization Models......Page 523 16.5.7 Available Software......Page 524 16.5.8 Summary......Page 525 References......Page 526 17.1.1.1 Normal Wear......Page 531 17.2 Unaccounted-for Water......Page 532 17.2.2 Understanding the Causes of Unaccounted-for Water......Page 533 17.2.3.1 Water Main Leakage......Page 535 17.2.3.4 Fire Fighting......Page 537 17.2.3.9 Meter under Registration......Page 538 17.2.4 Summary......Page 539 17.3.1.1 External Soil Corrosion......Page 540 17.3.2 External Loads......Page 541 17.3.4 Pressure-Related Breaks......Page 543 17.3.5 Repair Versus Replacement......Page 544 17.4.1.2 Hydraulic Modeling......Page 546 17.4.2.1 Closed Isolating Valves......Page 547 17.4.2.3 Carrying Capacity......Page 548 17.4.2.4 Inadequate Capacity......Page 549 17.4.3 Pipe Rehabilitation Technology......Page 550 17.5 Maintenance Information Systems......Page 551 17.5.3 Geographic Information Systems......Page 552 17.5.5 SCADA Systems......Page 553 References......Page 554 18.1.1 Need and Justification......Page 559 18.1.2 Definitions of Distribution System Repairs......Page 561 18.1.3.1 Performance Failure......Page 562 18.1.4 Reliability: Indexes and Approaches......Page 563 18.2.1.1 Piping Materials......Page 564 18.2.1.4 Looped Water Distribution System......Page 565 18.2.1.8 Emergency Controls......Page 566 18.2.1.12 Operational Considerations......Page 567 18.2.2.2 Diagrams of Distribution Segments......Page 568 18.2.2.4 Emergency Interconnections......Page 569 18.2.2.6 Typical Cross-Intersections......Page 571 18.2.2.7 Application of Segments in Valve Locations and Reliability Evaluation......Page 572 18.3.1 Failure Density, Failure Rate, and Mean Time to Failure......Page 573 18.3.2 Availability and Unavailability......Page 577 18.4.1 Reliability of a System Failure......Page 580 18.4.2 Failure Modes......Page 581 18.4.3 Approaches to the Assessment of Reliability......Page 584 18.4.4.1 Simulation Models......Page 587 18.4.4.2 Analytical Approaches......Page 591 18.4.4.4 Redundancy Based Measures......Page 597 18.4.5 Overview of Reliability Measures......Page 598 18.4.6 Observations......Page 600 18.5 Measure of Link Importance......Page 601 References......Page 607 A......Page 611 B......Page 612 C......Page 613 D......Page 616 E......Page 617 F......Page 618 H......Page 619 L......Page 620 M......Page 621 N......Page 622 O......Page 623 P......Page 624 R......Page 630 S......Page 632 T......Page 636 U......Page 637 V......Page 638 W......Page 639 Annotation All-in-one, state-of-the-art guide to safe drinking water. Civil engineers and anyone else involved in any way with the design, analysis, operation, maintenance or rehabilitation of water distribution systems will find practical guidance in Water Distribution Systems handbook. Experts selected by Handbook editor Larry W. Mays provide historical, present day, and future perspectives, as well as state-of-the-art details previously available only in specialized journals. You get a comprehensively detailed exploration of every facet of the hydraulics of pressurized flow; piping design and pipeline systems; storage issues; reliability analysis and distribution, and more. Detailed information on the latest technology contributions and on enhancements to the EPANET model are included. You'll also find case studies that range from the small municipal systems found in every U.S. town, to large systems common to great urban centers like New York, London and Paris "The only book of its kind, this compendium brings you detailed coverage of the latest methods, materials, techniques, and tools for water distribution systems."--BOOK JACKET. "Written by top experts that are members of the American Water Works Association, the American Society of Civil Engineers, and other leading professional organizations, the Water Distribution Systems Handbook provides specialists in each area to serve as your consultants. Each chapter provides expert, detailed, professional guidance on an important aspect of water distribution systems."--Jacket