Wireless Receiver Design for Digital Communications (Telecommunications)

Practical lessons and approaches in radio receiver design for wireless communication systems are the hallmarks of Wireless Receiver Design for Digital Communications, 2nd Edition . Decades of experience 'at the bench' are collected within and the book acts as a virtual replacement for a mentor who teaches basic concepts from a practical perspective and has the war stories that help their 'apprentice' avoid the mistakes of the past. Readers are led through the fundamental theory in the 'Basics of RF Engineering' chapter and then walked along the path toward applying this knowledge in the design of real world systems. Wireless Receiver Design for Digital Communications, 2nd Edition is a wireless design reference for students and professional in electrical engineering. It contains extensive chapters on mixers, oscillators, filters, and amplifiers. It details all major components related to receiver design, including cascade interaction, and provides excellent introductions and technical background on basic as well as advanced component characteristics. It is replete with exercises, design examples, illustrations, and proven concepts that help clarify the role of each component within the system design. This second edition is completely updated with modern wireless receiver systems for digital communications. Wireless Receiver Design for Digital Communications, 2nd Edition 4 Contents 6 Preface to Second Edition 12 Preface to First Edition 13 Bibliography 13 Acknowledgments 14 1. Radio Frequency Basics 16 1.1 Introduction 16 1.2 Nomenclature 16 1.3 Decibels 17 1.3.1 Definitions 17 1.3.2 dB Math 19 1.3.3 Decibels, Current, and Voltage 23 1.4 Signal Standards 24 1.4.1 dBm 25 1.4.2 dBW 25 1.4.3 dBf 26 1.4.4 dBV 26 1.4.5 dBmV 26 1.4.6 Other Standards 28 1.5 Frequency, Wavelength, and Propagation Velocity 29 1.5.1 General Case 29 1.5.2 Free Space 30 1.5.3 The Speed of Light 31 1.5.4 Physical Size 31 1.6 Transmission Lines 32 1.6.1 Characteristic Impedance 33 1.6.2 Transmission Lines and Pulsed Input Signals 35 1.6.3 Propagation Velocity or Velocity Factor 36 1.6.4 Guide Wavelength 37 1.7 Descriptions of Impedance 37 1.7.1 Reflection Coefficient 37 1.7.2 VSWR 43 1.8 S-Parameters 53 1.8.1 Philosophy 53 1.8.2 Definition 54 1.8.3 Measurement Technique 54 1.8.4 S-Parameter Relationships 56 1.9 Matching and Maximum Power Transfer 56 1.9.1 Resistive Loads 57 1.9.2 Complex Loads 57 1.9.3 When to Match 59 1.9.4 When Not to Match 59 1.10 Introduction to Radio Frequency Components 61 1.10.1 Amplifiers 61 1.10.2 Resistive Attenuators 66 1.10.3 Gain of Cascaded Devices 70 1.11 Bibliography 72 1.12 Problems 73 2. Signals, Noise, and Modulation 78 2.1 Introduction 78 2.2 A Real-Valued, Ideal Cosine Wave 78 2.2.1 The Time Domain 78 2.2.2 The Frequency Domain 80 2.2.3 The Phasor Domain 84 2.3 Single-Sided Spectra and Complex Basebanding 88 2.3.1 Complex Signals 88 2.3.2 Examples of Complex Signals 90 2.3.3 Complex Signals as Phasors 91 2.3.4 Positive and Negative Frequencies 91 2.3.5 Phasors and Frequencies 93 2.3.6 The Amplitude, Phase, and Frequency of a Complex Signal 95 2.3.7 Example: An Upchirp 96 2.4 Two Noiseless Sine Waves 102 2.4.1 Time Domain 102 2.4.2 Frequency Domain 104 2.4.3 Phasor 104 2.4.4 Amplitude Detection 106 2.4.5 Phase Detection 107 2.4.6 Frequency Detection 107 2.4.7 Explaining It All With Phasors 108 2.5 Band-Limited Additive White Gaussian Noise 114 2.5.1 Time Domain 115 2.5.2 Zero Crossings 117 2.5.3 Frequency Domain 118 2.5.4 Phasor Domain 119 2.6 An Ideal Sine Wave and Band-Limited AWGN 119 2.6.1 Time Domain 119 2.6.2 Zero Crossings 120 2.6.3 Frequency Domain 121 2.6.4 Phasor 121 2.7 The Quadrature Modulator 124 2.7.1 Quadrature Modulator Architecture 124 2.7.2 Generating a Single Tone at f = fRF 126 2.7.3 Generating a Single Tone at f ≠ fRF 126 2.7.4 Generating a Frequency Shift Keying Signal 127 2.8 Analog Modulation 130 2.8.1 Double-Sideband Amplitude Modulation (DSBAM) 130 2.8.2 Frequency Modulation 136 2.8.3 Phase Modulation (PM) 139 2.9 Digital Modulation 145 2.9.1 Generating Digitally Modulated Signals 145 2.9.2 Bits, Symbols, and Alphabets 145 2.9.3 Bit Rate versus Symbol Rate 146 2.9.4 Random Data 147 2.9.5 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) 147 2.9.6 On-Off Keying 149 2.9.7 Binary Phase Shift Keying 152 2.9.8 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying 155 2.9.9 Comparison of the Spectrum of BPSK and QPSK 158 2.9.10 Offset or Staggered QPSK 159 2.9.11 8PSK 159 2.9.12 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): 16QAM 162 2.9.13 Higher-Order QAM 165 2.9.14 The Noise Performance of PSK and QAM Signals 165 2.9.15 Frequency Shift Keying Modulation 166 2.9.16 2LFSK 166 2.9.17 4LFSK 167 2.9.18 Multitone FSK 169 2.9.19 Implementation Details 176 2.10 Quadrature Modulators, Baseband Filtering, and Spectrum Control 177 2.10.1 RF Spectrum 177 2.10.2 Spectrally Shaped BPSK 182 2.10.3 Time Scaling 183 2.10.4 Time Scaling and Intersymbol Interference 185 2.11 General Characteristics of Signals 187 2.11.1 Average Value 187 2.11.2 RMS Value 188 2.11.3 Peak (Crest) Factor 188 2.12 Summary 189 2.13 Bibliography 190 2.14 Problems 190 3. Propagation 194 3.1 Introduction 194 3.2 Types of Propagation 194 3.3 Propagation Through Free Space 195 3.3.1 Free-Space Path Loss 195 3.3.2 The Free-Space Path Loss Equation 197 3.4 Propagation Through a Homogenous Medium 199 3.4.1 The Atmosphere 200 3.4.2 Excess Loss 201 3.4.3 Time Varying Excess Loss 201 3.4.4 Flat Fading 201 3.5 Propagation Through a NonHomogenous Medium 202 3.5.1 Refraction 202 3.5.2 K-Factor 202 3.5.3 Reflection 203 3.5.4 Multipath 203 3.6 Multipath Propagation 204 3.6.1 Two-Ray Analysis 206 3.6.2 Frequency Response 209 3.6.3 Three-Ray Analysis 211 3.6.4 n-Ray Analysis 211 3.6.5 Spatial Redistribution of Energy 212 3.6.6 Multipath Behavior over Time 215 3.6.7 Multipath Statistics 216 3.6.8 Multipath Mitigation 216 3.6.9 Multipath Equalizers 219 3.7 Bibliography 220 3.8 Problems 220 4. Antennas 222 4.1 Introduction 222 4.2 Antenna Equivalent Circuits 223 4.2.1 Transmitting Model 223 4.2.2 Receiving Model 225 4.2.3 Received Noise 225 4.3 Aperture 230 4.4 The Isotropic Radiator 231 4.5 Antenna Gain, Beamwidth, and Aperture 232 4.5.1 Antenna Gain and Directivity 232 4.5.2 Nomenclature 232 4.5.3 Gain Measurement Details 235 4.5.4 Gain, Directivity, and Efficiency 236 4.6 Bibliography 241 4.7 Problems 242 5. Filters 244 5.1 Introduction 244 5.2 Linear Systems Review 245 5.2.1 Pole/Zero Review—Series RLC 245 5.2.2 Magnitude of H(jω) 247 5.2.3 Angle of H(jω) 249 5.2.4 Dominant Poles and Zeroes 251 5.3 Filters and Systems 257 5.4 Filter Types and Terminology 258 5.4.1 Filter Terminology 258 5.4.2 Filter Types 259 5.4.2.3 Band-Pass Filters 260 5.4.2.4 Band-Stop (or Band-Reject) Filters 260 5.5 Generic Filter Responses 260 5.5.1 Magnitude Response 260 5.5.2 Pole/Zero Plot 261 5.5.3 Phase Plot 263 5.5.4 Group Delay 263 5.6 Classes of Low-Pass Filters 267 5.6.1 Butterworth Low-Pass Filters 268 5.6.2 Chebychev Low-Pass Filters 269 5.6.3 Filters for the Time Domain 274 5.6.4 Elliptic Filters 276 5.7 Low-Pass Filter Comparison 279 5.8 Filter Input/Output Impedances 282 5.8.1 Filter Element Impedances 282 5.8.2 Series Element First, Shunt Element First 285 5.9 Transient Response of Filters 288 5.9.1 Transient Response of Low-Pass Filters 289 5.10 Band-Pass Filters 290 5.10.1 Band-Pass Filter Terminology 290 5.11 Noise Bandwidth 295 5.11.1 Noise Bandwidth Calculation 296 5.11.2 Noise Bandwidth of Various Band-Pass Filters 299 5.12 Butterworth Filters in Detail 299 5.12.1 Butterworth Low-Pass Filters 300 5.12.2 Butterworth Band-Pass Filters 303 5.12.3 Butterworth High-Pass Filters 308 5.12.4 Butterworth Band-Stop Filters 309 5.13 Miscellaneous Items 311 5.14 Matched Filters 312 5.14.1 The Equation 312 5.14.2 An Example 312 5.14.3 The Conjugate 314 5.14.4 The Magnitude of S∗(f) 315 5.14.5 e−j2πf T 316 5.14.6 A Practical Matched Filter 316 5.14.7 The Matched Filter in Action 317 5.15 Bibliography 318 5.16 Problems 318 6. Noise 324 6.1 Introduction 324 6.2 Equivalent Model for a Radio Frequency Device 324 6.3 Noise Fundamentals 326 6.3.1 Thermal Noise 327 6.3.2 Noise Described Statistically 327 6.3.3 Voltage Source Model 327 6.3.4 Current Source Model 329 6.3.5 Noise Power 333 6.4 One Noisy Resistor 334 6.4.1 Room Temperature or T0 335 6.4.2 N0 335 6.5 System Model: Two Noisy Resistors 336 6.5.1 Antenna Noise Models 340 6.5.2 Antenna Noise Temperature 340 6.6 Amplifier Noise Model 342 6.6.1 Equivalent Input Noise Power 342 6.6.2 Output Noise Power 344 6.7 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 344 6.7.1 Definition 345 6.7.2 SNR and Signal Quality 345 6.7.3 Measuring SNR 346 6.8 Noise Factor/Noise Figure 349 6.8.1 N0 349 6.8.2 Definitions 349 6.8.3 Noise Factor/Noise Figure 350 6.8.4 Noise Factor, Noise Temperature Relationships 350 6.8.5 Equivalent Input Noise Power (Again) 351 6.8.6 Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Noise Figure 353 6.9 Cascade Performance 355 6.9.1 Noise Temperature of a Cascade 356 6.9.2 Noise Factor of a Cascade 359 6.10 Examining the Cascade Equations 361 6.11 Minimum Detectable Signal 361 6.12 Noise Performance of Lossy Devices 362 6.12.1 System without Attenuator 362 6.13 Bibliography 371 6.14 Problems 371 7. Linearity 378 7.1 Introduction 378 7.2 Linear and Nonlinear Systems 379 7.2.1 Linear Systems 379 7.2.2 Weakly Nonlinear Systems 379 7.3 Amplifier Transfer Curve 380 7.3.1 Small Signals 380 7.3.2 Large Signals 381 7.3.3 Small Signals 382 7.3.4 Summary 383 7.3.5 Nonlinear Device 384 7.4 Polynomial Approximations 384 7.4.1 RF Amplifier 384 7.4.2 Matching Derivatives 384 7.4.3 Weakly Nonlinear 385 7.4.4 Strongly Nonlinear 385 7.5 Single-Tone Analysis 386 7.6 Two-Tone Analysis 388 7.7 Distortion Summary 395 7.8 Preselection 397 7.9 Second-Order Distortion 398 7.9.1 Preselection and Second-Order Effects 398 7.9.2 The Second-Order Solution 400 7.10 Third-Order Distortion 401 7.10.1 Preselection and Third-Order Effects 401 7.10.2 The Third-Order Solution 402 7.11 Narrowband and Wideband Systems 403 7.11.1 Wideband/Narrowband Examples 403 7.12 Higher-Order Effects 404 7.13 Second-Order Intercept Point 405 7.13.1 Measuring Nonlinear Devices 405 7.13.2 Definitions 406 7.13.3 Second-Order Intercept Point 407 7.13.4 Quantifying Distortion Power 407 7.14 Third-Order Intercept Point 411 7.14.1 Measurement Technique 411 7.14.2 Measurement Philosophy 411 7.14.3 Definitions 412 7.14.4 Third-Order Intercept Point 413 7.14.5 Quantifying Distortion Power 413 7.15 Measuring Amplifier Nonlinearity 417 7.15.1 Second-Order Measurement 417 7.15.2 Third-Order Measurements 419 7.16 Gain Compression/Output Saturation 420 7.16.1 1 dB Compression Point 420 7.16.2 Saturated Output Power 422 7.17 Comparison of Nonlinear Specifications 423 7.17.1 SOI, TOI, Then CP 423 7.17.2 Balanced Devices 424 7.17.3 Slopes 424 7.17.4 Worst-Case Scenario 424 7.18 Nonlinearities in Cascade 425 7.18.1 Nomenclature Refresher 425 7.18.2 Third-Order Intercept 426 7.18.3 Second-Order Intercept 432 7.19 Compression Point 438 7.20 Distortion Notes 438 7.20.1 Third-Order Measurement Difficulties 438 7.20.2 Input Specs vs. Output Specs 438 7.20.3 Model Inadequacy 439 7.20.4 Linearity and Power Consumption 440 7.20.5 Coherent vs. Noncoherent Addition 440 7.20.6 Second-Order Distortion and Mixers 440 7.21 Nonlinearities and Modulated Signals 441 7.21.1 One Modulated Signal 441 7.21.2 One Modulated Signal, One Quiet Carrier 443 7.21.3 Second-Order Outputs 443 7.21.4 Two Modulated Signals 443 7.21.5 Cross Modulation 445 7.22 Bibliography 445 7.23 Problems 446 8. Mixers 458 8.1 Introduction 458 8.2 Frequency Translation Mechanisms 460 8.2.1 Amplifier Distortion 460 8.2.2 Amplifier Difficulties 461 8.2.3 Time-Domain Multiply 462 8.3 Nomenclature 462 8.3.1 Ports 463 8.3.2 Frequency Translation Equations 464 8.3.3 Three Forms 465 8.3.4 Frequency Translation and Filters 467 8.3.5 Conversion Loss 468 8.3.6 Port-to-Port Isolation 469 8.3.7 Mixer Isolation and Its Problems 472 8.3.8 Mixers in a Cascade 473 8.4 Block Versus Channelized Systems 474 8.4.1 Block Conversions 474 8.4.2 Channelized Conversions 474 8.5 Conversion Scheme Design 475 8.5.1 TVRO Example 475 8.5.2 High-Side and Low-Side LO 477 8.5.3 LO Frequency Calculation 477 8.6 Frequency Inversion 480 8.6.1 LSLO 481 8.6.2 HSLO 481 8.6.3 The Bottom Line 482 8.7 Image Frequencies 483 8.7.1 Locating Image Frequencies 484 8.8 Other Mixer Products 486 8.8.1 TVRO Example 486 8.8.2 Mixer Spur Tables 487 8.8.3 Double-Balanced Mixers 489 8.9 Spurious Calculations 490 8.9.1 Assumptions 490 8.9.2 Analysis Procedure 491 8.9.3 Derivation 491 8.10 Mixer Realizations 494 8.10.1 Single-Ended Mixers 494 8.10.2 Single-Balanced Mixers 497 8.10.3 Double-Balanced Mixers 502 8.11 General Mixer Notes 505 8.11.1 LO Power and Conversion Loss 505 8.11.2 LO Power and Linearity 505 8.11.3 LO Noise 505 8.11.4 Effects of Impedance Mismatch 506 8.11.5 Mixer SOI/TOI 506 8.12 Bibliography 508 8.13 Problems 508 9. Oscillators 522 9.1 Introduction 522 9.2 Ideal and Real-World Oscillators 522 9.2.1 Phase Noise and Frequency Drift 522 9.2.2 Representations of a Noisy Oscillator 526 9.3 Phase Noise 528 9.3.1 Phase Modulation under Small β (or Small Δφ) Conditions 529 9.3.2 Measuring φ(fm) 532 9.3.3 Sφ(fm) 535 9.3.4 The Effects of Phase Noise 538 9.3.5 Sources of Phase Noise—The Leeson Model 540 9.3.6 Incidental Phase Modulation 543 9.3.7 Incidental Frequency Modulation 548 9.4 Effects of Oscillator Spurious Components 551 9.4.1 Harmonically Related Spurious Signals 551 9.4.2 Nonharmonically Related Spurious Signals 552 9.4.3 Effects of Oscillator Spurious Products 552 9.5 Frequency Accuracy 554 9.5.1 Quantifying Drift 555 9.5.2 Nomenclature 556 9.5.3 Frequency Multiplication and Stability 559 9.5.4 Timing Accuracy 561 9.6 Other Considerations 561 9.6.1 Tuning Speed 561 9.6.2 Automatic Frequency Control 561 9.7 Oscillator Realizations 562 9.7.1 Phase-Locked Loops 562 9.7.2 Numerically Controlled Oscillator 569 9.8 Bibliography 581 9.9 Problems 582 10. Cascade Design 592 10.1 Introduction 592 10.1.1 Our Task 592 10.1.2 Input/Output Requirements 593 10.2 Minimum Detectable Signal 594 10.3 Dynamic Range 595 10.3.1 Linear Dynamic Range 595 10.3.2 Gain-Controlled Dynamic Range 595 10.3.3 Spur-Free Dynamic Range 596 10.3.4 Dynamic Range Notes 601 10.4 Gain Distribution 603 10.4.1 Required Gain 603 10.4.2 Three Gain Distributions 604 10.4.3 Excess Gain 605 10.4.4 Translation of Component Specifications 606 10.4.5 Gain Distribution and Noise Temperature 608 10.4.6 Gain Distribution and Linearity 615 10.5 System Nonlinearities 625 10.5.1 Detection 625 10.5.2 Corrective Action 626 10.6 TOI Tone Placement 627 10.6.1 TOI Input Tones 627 10.7 Automatic Gain Control 629 10.7.1 Noise/Linearity Trade-Offs 630 10.7.2 AGC Action 631 10.7.3 AGC Bandwidth 631 10.7.4 Cascade Gain Distribution Rules 632 10.7.5 Linearity and Power Consumption 634 10.7.6 Cascades, Bandwidth, and Cable Runs 634 10.8 Frequency Planning and IF Selection 636 10.8.1 Introduction 636 10.8.2 Our Task 637 10.8.3 Image Noise 640 10.8.4 Upconversion versus Downconversion 643 10.8.5 LOs, Tuning Range, and Phase Noise 649 10.8.6 IF Selection Guidelines 650 10.8.7 Practical Design Considerations 652 10.9 A Typical System 655 10.9.1 Filter BPF1 655 10.9.2 Amplifier A1 656 10.9.3 Filter BPF2 656 10.9.4 Amplifier A2 656 10.9.5 Mixer M1 656 10.9.6 Amplifier A3 657 10.9.7 Filter BPF3 657 10.9.8 Mixer M2 657 10.9.9 Filter BPF4 657 10.9.10 Amplifier A4 657 10.9.11 ADC 658 10.9.12 Filter BPF5 658 10.10 Design Examples 658 10.10.1 Design Example #1 658 10.10.2 Design Example #2 664 10.11 Bibliography 667 10.12 Problems 667 11. Digitizing 682 11.1 Introduction 682 11.2 Nyquist-Shannon Theorem 682 11.3 Sampling at Discrete Instants in Time 683 11.3.1 Aliasing 683 11.3.2 Undersampling 683 11.3.3 Sampling Jitter 690 11.4 Sampling with Discrete Resolution 691 11.4.1 Quantization Error 692 11.4.2 Low Input Levels 692 11.4.3 Large Input Levels 692 11.5 Sources of Spurious Signals 694 11.5.1 Dithering 696 11.5.2 Nondestructive Dithering 697 11.6 Analog-to-Digital Converters 698 11.6.1 An Ideal ADC Transfer Function 698 11.6.2 Sample Histograms 701 11.6.3 Spur-Free Dynamic Range 702 11.7 Using an ADC in an RF System 703 11.7.1 Required ADC Resolution 704 11.7.2 ADC Equivalent Noise Temperature 705 11.8 Bibliography 708 11.9 Problems 708 12. Demodulation 710 12.1 Introduction 710 12.2 A Transmitter Model 711 12.3 The Pulse-Shaping Filter 712 12.3.1 Root Raised Cosine Spectral Shaping 712 12.3.2 RRC Filter Roll-Off Factor β 712 12.4 A 16QAM Modulator 714 12.5 A Receiver Model 718 12.5.1 Matched Filtering 719 12.5.2 Gain Control 719 12.5.3 Signal Power Estimation 719 12.5.4 The Effects of Oscillator Accuracy in a Sampled System 721 12.6 Estimation of Carrier Frequency 722 12.6.1 Average Phase Advance per Sample 723 12.6.2 Using Nonlinearities to Estimate Carrier Offset 724 12.6.3 Fourth Power Spectra 730 12.6.4 32QAM—A Comparison of Carrier Estimation Parameters 731 12.7 Estimation of Baud Rate 733 12.7.1 Filter, then AM Detect—BPSK 733 12.7.2 Envelope (AM) Detection 733 12.7.3 The Requirement for Excess Bandwidth 736 12.8 Constellation Impairments 736 12.8.1 Cluster Variance 737 12.8.2 Normal, Healthy Constellation 737 12.8.3 Degraded SNR Constellation 737 12.8.4 Carrier Recovery Loop Phase Offset 739 12.8.5 Carrier Recovery Loop Unlocked 739 12.8.6 Poor Phase Noise 740 12.8.7 Coherent Carrier Interference 740 12.8.8 Multipath 741 12.8.9 IQ Phase Imbalance 741 12.8.10 I/Q Amplitude Imbalance 741 12.8.11 Gain Compression 741 12.8.12 Improper Amounts of Gain 743 12.8.13 Amplitude Variation beyond Automatic Gain Control Bandwidth 743 12.8.14 AM/PM Conversion 744 12.9 Bibliography 745 12.10 Problems 745 Appendix 748 A.1 Miscellaneous Trigonometric Relationships 748 A.2 Euler Identities 749 A.3 Law of Cosines 749 Selected Answers 750 Index 760 Author Biography 774

Practical lessons and approaches in radio receiver design for wireless communication systems are the hallmarks of Wireless Receiver Design for Digital Communications, 2nd Edition. Decades of experience 'at the bench' are collected within and the book acts as a virtual replacement for a mentor who teaches basic concepts from a practical perspective and has the war stories that help their 'apprentice' avoid the mistakes of the past.

Readers are led through the fundamental theory in the 'Basics of RF Engineering' chapter and then walked along the path toward applying this knowledge in the design of real world systems.

Wireless Receiver Design for Digital Communications, 2nd Edition is a wireless design reference for students and professional in electrical engineering. It contains extensive chapters on mixers, oscillators, filters, and amplifiers. It details all major components related to receiver design, including cascade interaction, and provides excellent introductions and technical background on basic as well as advanced component characteristics. It is replete with exercises, design examples, illustrations, and proven concepts that help clarify the role of each component within the system design. This second edition is completely updated with modern wireless receiver systems for digital communications.