Argumentation : keeping faith with reason

Contents note continued: Criteria Used by the Audience -- Criteria "Outside" the Presentation -- Criteria "Inside" the Presentation -- Time and Credibility -- Issues with Credibility -- Developing Your Credibility -- Before the Argument Starts -- In the Argument -- Attacking Credibility: The Ad Hominem Argument -- Types of Personal Attacks -- The Bottom Line -- Responding to a Personal Attack -- Case Studies -- The Tylenol Crisis of 1982 -- The Curious Case of Governor Sarah Palin -- Conclusion -- Summary of Ethos -- ch. 11 Presenting Your Argument -- Introduction -- The Classical Model -- Parts of the Model -- The Model in Summary -- Classic-lite -- Other Argument Structures -- Pathos-centric -- Delayed Thesis -- Rogerian -- Diatribe -- Still More Argument Structures -- Specialized Models -- The Five-Paragraph Field Order -- Oral Models -- Rebuttal Models -- Cultural-specific Models -- Choosing a Model -- Classical Model -- Pathos-centric -- Delayed Thesis -- Rogerian.;Contents note continued: Highlighting Aspects of a Complex Argument -- Quick Explanations -- Humor -- Analogies That Don't Persuade -- Invalid Analogies -- Audience Misanalysis -- Cultural Specificity -- The Fallacy of the Overdone Analogy -- The Fallacy of the Extreme Analogy -- Famous Analogies -- The Blind Man and the Elephant -- The Iron Curtain -- The Watchmaker Analogy -- The Marketplace of Ideas -- The Gaia Hypothesis -- "If We Can Land a Man on the Moon ..." -- Other Analogies -- Rebutting Analogies -- Summary of Argument by Analogy -- Argument by Parallel Case -- How It Works -- Making a Comparison the Audience Already Accepts -- Role in Policy Claims -- Is Parallel Case Really a Different Form of Argument? -- Is "Class of Objects" Always an Unambiguous Concept? -- So, How Is This Persuasive? -- Famous Parallel Case Arguments -- The Influence of Command of the Seas -- Can Animals Provide Insight on Human Behavior? -- Argument by Precedent.;Contents note continued: Do We Encounter the Truth on a Regular Basis? -- Postmodernism or Sophisticated Modernism? -- Welcome to the Community of Truth Seekers -- That's Just a Theory -- That's Just Your Opinion -- Do We Vote on Truth? -- But What About a Hero? -- Meanwhile, Back in Your World -- Developing a Fact Claim -- Conclusion -- Summary for Fact Claims -- ch. 7 Analyzing Value Claims -- Introduction -- The Scope of Value Claims -- Why Value Arguments Are Difficult -- What Is a Value Argument About? -- There Is No Single, Universally Accepted Set of Criteria for Evaluating Value Questions -- The Consequences and Opportunities Created by the Existence of Multiple Value Systems -- People Do Not Change Their Values Easily -- Can You Even Argue Values? -- It's Hard to Argue About Something That You've Always Assumed Is Right -- The Implications for Your Arguments -- Facts and Values -- Clarifying Types of Values -- Instrumental Values vs. Terminal Values.;Machine generated contents note: ch. 1 Why Study Argument? -- The Alternatives to Argumentation -- Argumentation Is a Requirement for Democracy -- An Asset for Life -- How to Use This Book -- A Note to Students -- A Note to Instructors -- But Isn't It More Complicated? -- ch. 2 What Is an Argument? -- Introduction -- The Definition of an Argument -- An Argument Is a Claim Supported by Reasons -- An Argument Is Intended to Persuade -- An Argument Takes Place in a Context -- "Argument" Means Both the Product (the Claims and Reasons) and the Process (the Exchange of Claims and Reasons) -- The Boundaries of Argument -- Insults Are Not (in and of Themselves) Arguments -- Descriptions and Explanations Are Arguments -- Opinions Are Arguments -- Emotions Are Reasons (or Reasonable) -- Arguments Typically Have More than Two Sides -- Implications of Our Definition -- Arguments Are Used in Many Types of Communication -- An Argument May Be Implicit.;Contents note continued: Principles vs. Consequences -- Short-term vs. Long-term Values -- Class Exercise: Why Is Cheating Wrong? -- Arguing Values -- Supporting a Value Claim -- Aesthetic Arguments -- Clarifying Claims -- Clarifying Criteria -- Advocating an Aesthetic Value -- What Is the "Top 10" List Measuring? -- Examples of Value Disputes -- Subjects with Value Disputes -- Value Conflicts -- Justice vs. Mercy -- Honesty vs. Kindness -- Turning a Profit vs. Social Responsibility -- Are Taxes Theft or a Duty? -- Individual Freedom vs. Social Responsibility -- Is the Morality of Public Officials Private or Public? -- Conclusion -- Summary of Value Claims -- ch. 8 Analyzing Policy Claims -- Introduction -- Aspects of Policy Claims -- Policy Claims Advocate a Course of Action -- Policy Claims Also Include "Personal Policy" Arguments -- Policy Claims Are Also Evaluated on the Plans and Projects Needed to Implement Them.;Contents note continued: Diatribe -- Choosing How to Present Your Argument -- Audience Assessment -- Choosing Which Arguments to Use -- Choosing the Model -- Make Your Argument -- Practicalities -- Conclusion -- ch. 12 Finding Evidence -- Introduction -- You Need to Use Better Sources -- You Need to Learn How to Find Good Sources -- The Revolution in Evidence -- Finding Evidence -- Techniques for Finding Evidence -- Assessing Evidence -- Typically, Prefer a Primary Source over a Secondary Source -- Evaluate the Content of the Source -- Evaluate the Author of the Source -- Evaluate Where the Source Appears -- Watch Out for These Warning Signs -- How You Can Use a Source That Is Not Fully Credible -- Dealing with Conflicting Sources -- Assessing Special Types of Evidence -- Evidence That Is Translated from Another Language -- Evidence That Comes from a Different Culture -- Studies -- Statistics -- Graphs and Charts -- Court Cases -- The White Paper -- The Internet.;Contents note continued: Types of Definitional Arguments -- Defining a Definition -- Argument Strategy -- First Draft of an Argument Strategy -- Second Draft of an Argument Strategy -- Definitions in the Three Types of Claims -- Fact Claims -- Value Claims -- Policy claims -- Where Do Definitions Come From? -- Not from the Dictionary -- Changing Our Definitions and Categories -- The Reality of "Social Construction" -- Who Gets to Decide on a Definition? -- "Well Defined" for What Context? -- Interests Presented as Objective Definitions -- Asserting Authority: Definitional Hegemony -- Reductionism -- Circular Definitions -- Naming as Reality-Shifting -- Definitions, Respect, and Political Correctness -- Thinking about Contexts -- Context and Purpose -- Specialized and General Contexts -- The Role of Pathos -- Winning without Arguing -- Changing the Level of Emotion -- Mystification and Excluding -- For Further Study -- Is Pluto a Planet? -- What Is and Is Not a Sport?;This text uses a conceptual framework involving three types of claims (fact, value, policy) that are advanced by forms of reasoning (definition, example, cause, sign, etc.). This framework describes a wider variety of arguments. Upon completing this book, readers will be able to understand basic concepts in argumentation theory, criticism, and practice as well as make good arguments as well as evaluate the arguments they encounter.;Contents note continued: Policy Claims Tend to Be about the Future (but You Can Do "Thought Experiments" about the Past) -- Policy Claims Always Involve Sub-Arguments of Facts and Values -- What Is Unique About Policy Claims? -- Policy Claims Typically Involve Collective or Complicated Decision-making Processes -- Implementing a Policy Claim Typically Will Create a Complex Mix of "Winners" and "Losers" Who Are Unequally Affected by the Policy Change -- Constraints of Time, Money, and Other Resources Force Choices among Policies -- Policies Have Multiple Goals That Force Trade-offs -- Policy Claims Typically Involve Making Predictions about Imperfectly Understood, Complex Causal Processes -- Policies Exist in the Cold, Cruel, "Real World" of Imperfect Human Beings -- Building Your Policy Claim -- Issues You Must Consider -- After Your Plan: How Will People and Society Adapt If This Proposal Is Adopted? Will That Adaptation Undermine Your Plan?;Contents note continued: Toulmin Model -- Example 1: Smoke -- Example 2: Admission to Grad School -- Case Study -- What Makes Argument by Sign Valid? -- Single Reliable Cause -- The Implications of a Second Cause -- Independent and Dependent Signs -- Dealing with Probabilistic Signs -- Making a Stronger Argument -- Arguing about Signs -- What Is the Stasis of This Argument? -- Defending and Rebutting -- "X Is Consistent with Y" -- Selecting Signs -- Famous Arguments from Sign -- Sherlock Holmes, Dr. House, and All Who Detect and Diagnose -- The Cover of the Beatles' Abbey Road Album -- The Police Officer Deciding to Arrest Someone for DWI -- Signs of God -- Signs of Child Abuse -- Examples for Further Study -- What Are the Signs of a Good Job? -- What Are the Signs You Should End a Relationship? -- What Are the Signs This Person Is Unreliable or Lying? -- What Does Clothing Signify? -- Conclusion -- Summary of Argument from Sign -- ch. 21 Argument by Dilemma -- Introduction.;Contents note continued: What Is the Definition of Death? -- "Natural" vs. "Artificial" Sugars -- Casey Martin and the Definition of Golf -- Conclusion -- Summary of Definitional Arguments -- ch. 17 Argument by Example -- Introduction -- Understanding Argument by Example -- Argument by Example Is Different than Illustrating an Argument with an Example -- Argument by Example Is Inductive Reasoning -- What Claims Can Your Examples Support? -- Informal Reasoning by Example -- Providing Sufficient Examples -- Examples Are Typical but So Are Counterexamples -- Examples Confirming a Suspicion -- Implications for Your Arguments -- Providing Representative Examples -- Examples and Generalizations -- What Does This Support? -- What Comes First? -- What Should You Include? -- Statistics: Formal Argument by Example -- "Anecdotal Evidence" -- Polling, Sampling, and Systematic Data Collection -- Testing Hypothesis -- Between Anecdote and Statistics: How You Can Use Examples You Collected.;Contents note continued: The Medium Affects the Message -- Recent Changes in Media -- The Art of the Paper -- The Occasion -- History -- Assessing Context: Some Examples -- The Personal Ad -- Business: Product Roll-out -- Case Studies -- Fighting against Kairos: Japan 2011 -- Waiting until a Favorable Context -- Integrating the Dimensions of Kairos: What Is the Persuasive Task I Face? -- Audience Views -- Audience Commitment -- Changing the Context -- Conclusion -- Summary of Kairos -- ch. 10 Ethos: Developing Your Credibility -- Introduction -- Understanding Credibility -- Defining Terms -- Who Has to Demonstrate Ethos? -- Is Our Discussion Prescriptive or Descriptive? -- Who Makes the Decision on Credibility? -- Credibility Depends on Context -- Credibility: What You Bring to the Argument and What You Demonstrate in the Argument -- The Bottom Line -- Models of Credibility -- Dimensions of the Audience's Decision -- Implications for Your Arguments.;Contents note continued: (Practical) Argumentation Is Not the Same as Formal Logic -- Argumentation Requires Sharing Assumptions -- Case 1: Conspiracy Theories (Violations of Logos) -- Case 2: Cult of Personality (Violations of Ethos) -- Case 3: Fundamentalism: There Is Nothing to Argue About -- Argumentation as a Shared Process Requiring Shared Assumptions -- Argumentation Is a Communal Process for Reaching Consensus -- Locating Practical Arguments -- Conclusion -- Summary of What Is an Argument? -- ch. 3 Forms of Proof -- Introduction -- The Four Forms of Proof -- Logos: Proof by Reason, Logic -- Pathos: Proof by Emotion, Appealing to the Sympathies of Your Audience -- Ethos: Proof by the Credibility of the Advocate -- Kairos: Context Affects the Persuasiveness of Our Argument -- Assessing Arguments -- Choosing What Form of Proof to Use -- Exercises -- Summary -- ch. 4 Modeling Argument (The Toulmin Model) -- Introduction -- The Model -- Background.;Contents note continued: Understanding Argument by Dilemma -- Rhetorical Impact -- How Does Argument by Dilemma Work? -- Implications -- Issues with Argument by Dilemma -- Making and Defending Your Argument -- Being Prepared to Justify Your Case -- Rebutting the Argument -- Case Study: Civil Liberties vs. National Security -- Why Is This Dilemma so Widely Accepted? -- Famous Dilemmas -- Socrates in Plato's Dialogs -- From the Old Testament -- The Larger Question of Dualistic Thinking -- Conclusion -- Summary of Argument by Dilemma -- ch. 22 Argument from Authority -- Introduction -- Why Do We Need This? -- Understanding Argument from Authority -- Developing an Argument from Authority -- Issues with Argument from Authority -- For Further Discussion -- Anonymous Sources in the Media -- The People You Meet at a Party -- Conclusion -- Summary of Argument from Authority -- ch. 23 Remember This -- What Does It Boil Down To? -- The Five Things -- A Few Final Thoughts.;Contents note continued: Approach 6: Change Your Mind! -- Placing and Framing Your Response -- Strategy: Where Should You Discuss Opposition Arguments? -- Tactics: Signposting and Formatting -- The Value of the "Little Courtesies" -- A Checklist for Your Rebuttal Section -- Rebuttals That Aren't Actually Rebuttals -- Falling into "Yes, It Is"/"No, It Isn't" -- Non-Denials That Appear like Denials -- Beyond Winning and Losing: Where Rebuttal Takes Your Argument -- Famous Rebuttals -- Two from Thucydides: The Mytilene Debate and the Melian Dialog -- Lincoln-Douglas Debates -- Prime Minister's Questions -- Debate Programs in High Schools and College -- Conclusion: Rebuttal as a Way to Truth -- Rebuttal and Your Ethos -- Done Right, Rebuttal Is Beneficial to Both Sides -- Summary of Rebutting Arguments -- ch. 15 Introduction to Forms of Reasoning -- The Relationship of Claim Types and Forms of Reasoning -- ch. 16 Definitional Arguments -- Introduction.;Contents note continued: How Argument by Example Can Go Wrong -- Examples Are False -- Examples Are Not Congruent with the Generalization -- Examples Are Not Independent -- Examples Are Not Really Similar or the Underlying Situation Has Evolved -- Contemporary Issues -- Pattern Recognition and Racism -- Collection and Use of Personal Testimony -- Another Look at Stories and Narratives -- Famous Arguments by Example -- Al Gore and An Inconvenient Truth -- The 1948 U.S. Presidential Election and Election Polling -- The U.S. Declaration of Independence -- A Generalization Proven by an Exception? -- Conclusion -- Summary of Argument by Example -- ch. 18 Argument by Analogy and Parallel Case -- Introduction -- What Are We Talking About? -- Culture and Analogies -- A Practical Taxonomy -- Argument by Analogy -- How It Works -- Using the Toulmin model -- Persuasion and Pathos -- Aspects of Analogies -- Creating Meaning and Finding It -- Analogies as Stimulus to Thought.;Contents note continued: A Model for Constructing a Policy Argument -- Responding to Policy Arguments -- Common Fallacies and Problems -- Trying to Solve a Policy Issue by Only Debating Value Arguments -- Trying to Reject All Value Dimensions of Public Policy in Favor of "Practicality" -- Not Putting Quantitative Values on Impacts -- The (Sometimes) Fallacy of the "Slippery Slope" -- Cases of Complexity -- Conclusion -- Summary of Policy Claims -- ch. 9 Kairos: The Context of Your Argument -- Introduction -- Audience Analysis: Who Receives Your Argument? -- Aiming at an Audience -- The Audience You're Not Aiming At -- Your Audience and the Universal Audience -- Am I Addressing a Uniform Audience? -- The Audience of the Future -- Three Dimensions of What We Want to Know -- Practical Considerations -- Blocks to Communication -- How Will You Learn about Your Audience? -- The Ethics of Analyzing Your Audience -- How Do I Learn about the Audience? -- The Medium of My Message.;Contents note continued: "Cause" Is Not Always "Blame" -- Fallacy of Making Assumptions as to Motives -- Fallacy of Value-based Warrants Filtering Causes -- Issues in Causal Arguments -- Heaps -- The Slippery Slope -- Famous Causal Arguments -- Did Separate but Equal Schools Cause Damage to Black Children? -- Do Lower Taxes Increase Federal Government Revenues? -- What Caused the Collapse of the Soviet Union? -- What Effects Have Been Caused by the Increase of CO2 in the Atmosphere? -- Case Studies: For Further Investigation -- What Did Cause the Decline in Crime Rates? -- Will Changing the Drinking Age Change the Culture of Drinking? -- Would Legalizing Marijuana Cause an Increase in the Use of "Hard" Drugs? -- Do Childhood Vaccines Cause Autism? -- Are Social Networking Sites and the Internet Generally Destroying Human Interaction? -- Conclusion -- Summary of Causal Arguments -- ch. 20 Argument from Sign -- Introduction -- The Structure of This Form of Reasoning.;Contents note continued: Vietnam, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya -- The -- Recession Is Like -- Immigration -- Legal Precedents -- Associated Fallacies -- Argument by Precedent -- Extended Analogy -- Conclusion -- ch. 19 Causal Argument -- Introduction -- Causal Arguments -- The Plan of the Chapter -- Can You Prove Anything? -- What Sort of Causation Is It? -- Immediate Cause and Background Cause -- Necessary and Sufficient Causes -- Significant and Insignificant Causes -- Deterministic and Probabilistic Causes -- A Cause That Works Always, Usually, Sometimes, or Has Once -- Causing Outcomes, Causing Variations -- Correlation, Causation, and Controlled Experiments -- Correlation -- "Correlation Is Not Causation" -- Controlled Experiments: Harnessing Correlations -- Explaining Our Data: Theories about Causal Links -- Theories in Search of Data -- Beyond "X Causes Y" -- The Fallacy of Oversimplified Cause -- Influence Arguments -- Feedback Loops -- Causal Arguments in Value Claims.;Contents note continued: Fitting Evidence into Your Writing -- Listing Sources -- Creating Evidence -- Ten Things That Aren't True -- ch. 14 Rebutting Arguments -- Introduction -- The Problem -- The Opportunity -- Stasis Theory: What Are We Arguing About? -- The Theory -- Locating the Central Question -- Evading the Question -- Misstating the Argument: "Straw Person" Fallacy -- Dealing with Chaos -- Who Are We Arguing With? -- The Benefits of Dealing with Stasis -- The Burden of Proof -- The Tactical Value of Trying to Assume the Presumption -- Consequences for Disputed Questions -- A Special Case -- Ways of Responding -- Approach 1: Rebut Directly (with Evidence or Reasoning) -- Approach 2: Reject the Reply as Irrelevant -- Approach 3: Qualify the Claim to Exclude the Impact of the Reply -- Approach 4: Move to a More Sophisticated Position That Includes the Reply -- Approach 5: Concede Validity of the Point, but Maintain Your Argument on Other Grounds.;Contents note continued: Overview of the Six Parts -- Claims -- Finding the Claim -- Grounds -- Qualifying Claims -- Overqualifying Claims -- Warrants -- Backing -- Fields of Argument -- Working with the Model -- Diagramming Arguments -- Assessing Arguments -- Argumentation Theory and the Toulmin Model -- Using Multiple Grounds -- Multiple Grounds with Multiple Warrants -- Multiple Grounds with a Single Warrant -- Argument Networks -- An Exercise -- Procedure -- Conclusion -- Summary of the Toulmin Model -- ch. 5 Introduction to Claim Types -- Introduction -- Three Types of Claims: Fact Claims, Value Claims, and Policy Claims -- Fact Claims -- Value Claims -- Policy Claims -- What Type Is It Really? -- Confusing Fact and Value Claims -- Confusing Value and Policy Claims -- Confusing Fact, Value, and Policy Claims -- So How Can We Tell? -- Test Cases -- Conclusion -- ch. 6 Analyzing Fact Claims -- Introduction -- Can We Know What Truth Is? -- Just What Are We Uncertain About?;Contents note continued: Evaluation of Specific Sources -- For Further Learning -- ch. 13 Evidence and Your Argument -- Introduction -- Selecting Evidence for Your Argument -- How Much Evidence Do You Need? -- Evidence and Your Entire Argument -- The Ethos of a Source Depends on the Claim You are Advancing -- The Ethos of a Source Depends on the Audience You are Addressing -- Sources from a Different Point of View than the One You Are Advocating Increase Credibility -- Evidence, the Audience, and Your Argument -- Evidence from Diverse, Independent Sources Increases Credibility -- Evidence That Directly Addresses Audience Concerns about Evidence Should Be Sought -- Using Evidence in Your Introduction -- You Have an Ethical Obligation Not to Omit Information That Affects Source Credibility -- Summary Criteria -- How Well Is Your Argument Supported? -- Citing Evidence -- What to Cite -- Plagiarism -- How to Cite -- The Practicalities of Citing Evidence Properly. Machine generated contents note: ch. 1 Why Study Argument? -- The Alternatives to Argumentation -- Argumentation Is a Requirement for Democracy -- An Asset for Life -- How to Use This Book -- A Note to Students -- A Note to Instructors -- But Isn't It More Complicated? -- ch. 2 What Is an Argument? -- Introduction -- The Definition of an Argument -- An Argument Is a Claim Supported by Reasons -- An Argument Is Intended to Persuade -- An Argument Takes Place in a Context -- "Argument" Means Both the Product (the Claims and Reasons) and the Process (the Exchange of Claims and Reasons) -- The Boundaries of Argument -- Insults Are Not (in and of Themselves) Arguments -- Descriptions and Explanations Are Arguments -- Opinions Are Arguments -- Emotions Are Reasons (or Reasonable) -- Arguments Typically Have More than Two Sides -- Implications of Our Definition -- Arguments Are Used in Many Types of Communication -- An Argument May Be Implicit. Contents note continued: (Practical) Argumentation Is Not the Same as Formal Logic -- Argumentation Requires Sharing Assumptions -- Case 1: Conspiracy Theories (Violations of Logos) -- Case 2: Cult of Personality (Violations of Ethos) -- Case 3: Fundamentalism: There Is Nothing to Argue About -- Argumentation as a Shared Process Requiring Shared Assumptions -- Argumentation Is a Communal Process for Reaching Consensus -- Locating Practical Arguments -- Conclusion -- Summary of What Is an Argument? -- ch. 3 Forms of Proof -- Introduction -- The Four Forms of Proof -- Logos: Proof by Reason, Logic -- Pathos: Proof by Emotion, Appealing to the Sympathies of Your Audience -- Ethos: Proof by the Credibility of the Advocate -- Kairos: Context Affects the Persuasiveness of Our Argument -- Assessing Arguments -- Choosing What Form of Proof to Use -- Exercises -- Summary -- ch. 4 Modeling Argument (The Toulmin Model) -- Introduction -- The Model -- Background. Contents note continued: Overview of the Six Parts -- Claims -- Finding the Claim -- Grounds -- Qualifying Claims -- Overqualifying Claims -- Warrants -- Backing -- Fields of Argument -- Working with the Model -- Diagramming Arguments -- Assessing Arguments -- Argumentation Theory and the Toulmin Model -- Using Multiple Grounds -- Multiple Grounds with Multiple Warrants -- Multiple Grounds with a Single Warrant -- Argument Networks -- An Exercise -- Procedure -- Conclusion -- Summary of the Toulmin Model -- ch. 5 Introduction to Claim Types -- Introduction -- Three Types of Claims: Fact Claims, Value Claims, and Policy Claims -- Fact Claims -- Value Claims -- Policy Claims -- What Type Is It Really? -- Confusing Fact and Value Claims -- Confusing Value and Policy Claims -- Confusing Fact, Value, and Policy Claims -- So How Can We Tell? -- Test Cases -- Conclusion -- ch. 6 Analyzing Fact Claims -- Introduction -- Can We Know What Truth Is? -- Just What Are We Uncertain About? Contents note continued: Do We Encounter the Truth on a Regular Basis? -- Postmodernism or Sophisticated Modernism? -- Welcome to the Community of Truth Seekers -- That's Just a Theory -- That's Just Your Opinion -- Do We Vote on Truth? -- But What About a Hero? -- Meanwhile, Back in Your World -- Developing a Fact Claim -- Conclusion -- Summary for Fact Claims -- ch. 7 Analyzing Value Claims -- Introduction -- The Scope of Value Claims -- Why Value Arguments Are Difficult -- What Is a Value Argument About? -- There Is No Single, Universally Accepted Set of Criteria for Evaluating Value Questions -- The Consequences and Opportunities Created by the Existence of Multiple Value Systems -- People Do Not Change Their Values Easily -- Can You Even Argue Values? -- It's Hard to Argue About Something That You've Always Assumed Is Right -- The Implications for Your Arguments -- Facts and Values -- Clarifying Types of Values -- Instrumental Values vs. Terminal Values. Contents note continued: Principles vs. Consequences -- Short-term vs. Long-term Values -- Class Exercise: Why Is Cheating Wrong? -- Arguing Values -- Supporting a Value Claim -- Aesthetic Arguments -- Clarifying Claims -- Clarifying Criteria -- Advocating an Aesthetic Value -- What Is the "Top 10" List Measuring? -- Examples of Value Disputes -- Subjects with Value Disputes -- Value Conflicts -- Justice vs. Mercy -- Honesty vs. Kindness -- Turning a Profit vs. Social Responsibility -- Are Taxes Theft or a Duty? -- Individual Freedom vs. Social Responsibility -- Is the Morality of Public Officials Private or Public? -- Conclusion -- Summary of Value Claims -- ch. 8 Analyzing Policy Claims -- Introduction -- Aspects of Policy Claims -- Policy Claims Advocate a Course of Action -- Policy Claims Also Include "Personal Policy" Arguments -- Policy Claims Are Also Evaluated on the Plans and Projects Needed to Implement Them. Contents note continued: Policy Claims Tend to Be about the Future (but You Can Do "Thought Experiments" about the Past) -- Policy Claims Always Involve Sub-Arguments of Facts and Values -- What Is Unique About Policy Claims? -- Policy Claims Typically Involve Collective or Complicated Decision-making Processes -- Implementing a Policy Claim Typically Will Create a Complex Mix of "Winners" and "Losers" Who Are Unequally Affected by the Policy Change -- Constraints of Time, Money, and Other Resources Force Choices among Policies -- Policies Have Multiple Goals That Force Trade-offs -- Policy Claims Typically Involve Making Predictions about Imperfectly Understood, Complex Causal Processes -- Policies Exist in the Cold, Cruel, "Real World" of Imperfect Human Beings -- Building Your Policy Claim -- Issues You Must Consider -- After Your Plan: How Will People and Society Adapt If This Proposal Is Adopted? Will That Adaptation Undermine Your Plan? Contents note continued: A Model for Constructing a Policy Argument -- Responding to Policy Arguments -- Common Fallacies and Problems -- Trying to Solve a Policy Issue by Only Debating Value Arguments -- Trying to Reject All Value Dimensions of Public Policy in Favor of "Practicality" -- Not Putting Quantitative Values on Impacts -- The (Sometimes) Fallacy of the "Slippery Slope" -- Cases of Complexity -- Conclusion -- Summary of Policy Claims -- ch. 9 Kairos: The Context of Your Argument -- Introduction -- Audience Analysis: Who Receives Your Argument? -- Aiming at an Audience -- The Audience You're Not Aiming At -- Your Audience and the Universal Audience -- Am I Addressing a Uniform Audience? -- The Audience of the Future -- Three Dimensions of What We Want to Know -- Practical Considerations -- Blocks to Communication -- How Will You Learn about Your Audience? -- The Ethics of Analyzing Your Audience -- How Do I Learn about the Audience? -- The Medium of My Message. Contents note continued: The Medium Affects the Message -- Recent Changes in Media -- The Art of the Paper -- The Occasion -- History -- Assessing Context: Some Examples -- The Personal Ad -- Business: Product Roll-out -- Case Studies -- Fighting against Kairos: Japan 2011 -- Waiting until a Favorable Context -- Integrating the Dimensions of Kairos: What Is the Persuasive Task I Face? -- Audience Views -- Audience Commitment -- Changing the Context -- Conclusion -- Summary of Kairos -- ch. 10 Ethos: Developing Your Credibility -- Introduction -- Understanding Credibility -- Defining Terms -- Who Has to Demonstrate Ethos? -- Is Our Discussion Prescriptive or Descriptive? -- Who Makes the Decision on Credibility? -- Credibility Depends on Context -- Credibility: What You Bring to the Argument and What You Demonstrate in the Argument -- The Bottom Line -- Models of Credibility -- Dimensions of the Audience's Decision -- Implications for Your Arguments. Contents note continued: Criteria Used by the Audience -- Criteria "Outside" the Presentation -- Criteria "Inside" the Presentation -- Time and Credibility -- Issues with Credibility -- Developing Your Credibility -- Before the Argument Starts -- In the Argument -- Attacking Credibility: The Ad Hominem Argument -- Types of Personal Attacks -- The Bottom Line -- Responding to a Personal Attack -- Case Studies -- The Tylenol Crisis of 1982 -- The Curious Case of Governor Sarah Palin -- Conclusion -- Summary of Ethos -- ch. 11 Presenting Your Argument -- Introduction -- The Classical Model -- Parts of the Model -- The Model in Summary -- Classic-lite -- Other Argument Structures -- Pathos-centric -- Delayed Thesis -- Rogerian -- Diatribe -- Still More Argument Structures -- Specialized Models -- The Five-Paragraph Field Order -- Oral Models -- Rebuttal Models -- Cultural-specific Models -- Choosing a Model -- Classical Model -- Pathos-centric -- Delayed Thesis -- Rogerian. Contents note continued: Diatribe -- Choosing How to Present Your Argument -- Audience Assessment -- Choosing Which Arguments to Use -- Choosing the Model -- Make Your Argument -- Practicalities -- Conclusion -- ch. 12 Finding Evidence -- Introduction -- You Need to Use Better Sources -- You Need to Learn How to Find Good Sources -- The Revolution in Evidence -- Finding Evidence -- Techniques for Finding Evidence -- Assessing Evidence -- Typically, Prefer a Primary Source over a Secondary Source -- Evaluate the Content of the Source -- Evaluate the Author of the Source -- Evaluate Where the Source Appears -- Watch Out for These Warning Signs -- How You Can Use a Source That Is Not Fully Credible -- Dealing with Conflicting Sources -- Assessing Special Types of Evidence -- Evidence That Is Translated from Another Language -- Evidence That Comes from a Different Culture -- Studies -- Statistics -- Graphs and Charts -- Court Cases -- The White Paper -- The Internet. Contents note continued: Evaluation of Specific Sources -- For Further Learning -- ch. 13 Evidence and Your Argument -- Introduction -- Selecting Evidence for Your Argument -- How Much Evidence Do You Need? -- Evidence and Your Entire Argument -- The Ethos of a Source Depends on the Claim You are Advancing -- The Ethos of a Source Depends on the Audience You are Addressing -- Sources from a Different Point of View than the One You Are Advocating Increase Credibility -- Evidence, the Audience, and Your Argument -- Evidence from Diverse, Independent Sources Increases Credibility -- Evidence That Directly Addresses Audience Concerns about Evidence Should Be Sought -- Using Evidence in Your Introduction -- You Have an Ethical Obligation Not to Omit Information That Affects Source Credibility -- Summary Criteria -- How Well Is Your Argument Supported? -- Citing Evidence -- What to Cite -- Plagiarism -- How to Cite -- The Practicalities of Citing Evidence Properly. Contents note continued: Fitting Evidence into Your Writing -- Listing Sources -- Creating Evidence -- Ten Things That Aren't True -- ch. 14 Rebutting Arguments -- Introduction -- The Problem -- The Opportunity -- Stasis Theory: What Are We Arguing About? -- The Theory -- Locating the Central Question -- Evading the Question -- Misstating the Argument: "Straw Person" Fallacy -- Dealing with Chaos -- Who Are We Arguing With? -- The Benefits of Dealing with Stasis -- The Burden of Proof -- The Tactical Value of Trying to Assume the Presumption -- Consequences for Disputed Questions -- A Special Case -- Ways of Responding -- Approach 1: Rebut Directly (with Evidence or Reasoning) -- Approach 2: Reject the Reply as Irrelevant -- Approach 3: Qualify the Claim to Exclude the Impact of the Reply -- Approach 4: Move to a More Sophisticated Position That Includes the Reply -- Approach 5: Concede Validity of the Point, but Maintain Your Argument on Other Grounds. Contents note continued: Approach 6: Change Your Mind! -- Placing and Framing Your Response -- Strategy: Where Should You Discuss Opposition Arguments? -- Tactics: Signposting and Formatting -- The Value of the "Little Courtesies" -- A Checklist for Your Rebuttal Section -- Rebuttals That Aren't Actually Rebuttals -- Falling into "Yes, It Is"/"No, It Isn't" -- Non-Denials That Appear like Denials -- Beyond Winning and Losing: Where Rebuttal Takes Your Argument -- Famous Rebuttals -- Two from Thucydides: The Mytilene Debate and the Melian Dialog -- Lincoln-Douglas Debates -- Prime Minister's Questions -- Debate Programs in High Schools and College -- Conclusion: Rebuttal as a Way to Truth -- Rebuttal and Your Ethos -- Done Right, Rebuttal Is Beneficial to Both Sides -- Summary of Rebutting Arguments -- ch. 15 Introduction to Forms of Reasoning -- The Relationship of Claim Types and Forms of Reasoning -- ch. 16 Definitional Arguments -- Introduction. Contents note continued: Types of Definitional Arguments -- Defining a Definition -- Argument Strategy -- First Draft of an Argument Strategy -- Second Draft of an Argument Strategy -- Definitions in the Three Types of Claims -- Fact Claims -- Value Claims -- Policy claims -- Where Do Definitions Come From? -- Not from the Dictionary -- Changing Our Definitions and Categories -- The Reality of "Social Construction" -- Who Gets to Decide on a Definition? -- "Well Defined" for What Context? -- Interests Presented as Objective Definitions -- Asserting Authority: Definitional Hegemony -- Reductionism -- Circular Definitions -- Naming as Reality-Shifting -- Definitions, Respect, and Political Correctness -- Thinking about Contexts -- Context and Purpose -- Specialized and General Contexts -- The Role of Pathos -- Winning without Arguing -- Changing the Level of Emotion -- Mystification and Excluding -- For Further Study -- Is Pluto a Planet? -- What Is and Is Not a Sport? Contents note continued: What Is the Definition of Death? -- "Natural" vs. "Artificial" Sugars -- Casey Martin and the Definition of Golf -- Conclusion -- Summary of Definitional Arguments -- ch. 17 Argument by Example -- Introduction -- Understanding Argument by Example -- Argument by Example Is Different than Illustrating an Argument with an Example -- Argument by Example Is Inductive Reasoning -- What Claims Can Your Examples Support? -- Informal Reasoning by Example -- Providing Sufficient Examples -- Examples Are Typical but So Are Counterexamples -- Examples Confirming a Suspicion -- Implications for Your Arguments -- Providing Representative Examples -- Examples and Generalizations -- What Does This Support? -- What Comes First? -- What Should You Include? -- Statistics: Formal Argument by Example -- "Anecdotal Evidence" -- Polling, Sampling, and Systematic Data Collection -- Testing Hypothesis -- Between Anecdote and Statistics: How You Can Use Examples You Collected. Contents note continued: How Argument by Example Can Go Wrong -- Examples Are False -- Examples Are Not Congruent with the Generalization -- Examples Are Not Independent -- Examples Are Not Really Similar or the Underlying Situation Has Evolved -- Contemporary Issues -- Pattern Recognition and Racism -- Collection and Use of Personal Testimony -- Another Look at Stories and Narratives -- Famous Arguments by Example -- Al Gore and An Inconvenient Truth -- The 1948 U.S. Presidential Election and Election Polling -- The U.S. Declaration of Independence -- A Generalization Proven by an Exception? -- Conclusion -- Summary of Argument by Example -- ch. 18 Argument by Analogy and Parallel Case -- Introduction -- What Are We Talking About? -- Culture and Analogies -- A Practical Taxonomy -- Argument by Analogy -- How It Works -- Using the Toulmin model -- Persuasion and Pathos -- Aspects of Analogies -- Creating Meaning and Finding It -- Analogies as Stimulus to Thought. Contents note continued: Highlighting Aspects of a Complex Argument -- Quick Explanations -- Humor -- Analogies That Don't Persuade -- Invalid Analogies -- Audience Misanalysis -- Cultural Specificity -- The Fallacy of the Overdone Analogy -- The Fallacy of the Extreme Analogy -- Famous Analogies -- The Blind Man and the Elephant -- The Iron Curtain -- The Watchmaker Analogy -- The Marketplace of Ideas -- The Gaia Hypothesis -- "If We Can Land a Man on the Moon ..." -- Other Analogies -- Rebutting Analogies -- Summary of Argument by Analogy -- Argument by Parallel Case -- How It Works -- Making a Comparison the Audience Already Accepts -- Role in Policy Claims -- Is Parallel Case Really a Different Form of Argument? -- Is "Class of Objects" Always an Unambiguous Concept? -- So, How Is This Persuasive? -- Famous Parallel Case Arguments -- The Influence of Command of the Seas -- Can Animals Provide Insight on Human Behavior? -- Argument by Precedent. Contents note continued: Vietnam, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya -- The -- Recession Is Like -- Immigration -- Legal Precedents -- Associated Fallacies -- Argument by Precedent -- Extended Analogy -- Conclusion -- ch. 19 Causal Argument -- Introduction -- Causal Arguments -- The Plan of the Chapter -- Can You Prove Anything? -- What Sort of Causation Is It? -- Immediate Cause and Background Cause -- Necessary and Sufficient Causes -- Significant and Insignificant Causes -- Deterministic and Probabilistic Causes -- A Cause That Works Always, Usually, Sometimes, or Has Once -- Causing Outcomes, Causing Variations -- Correlation, Causation, and Controlled Experiments -- Correlation -- "Correlation Is Not Causation" -- Controlled Experiments: Harnessing Correlations -- Explaining Our Data: Theories about Causal Links -- Theories in Search of Data -- Beyond "X Causes Y" -- The Fallacy of Oversimplified Cause -- Influence Arguments -- Feedback Loops -- Causal Arguments in Value Claims. Contents note continued: "Cause" Is Not Always "Blame" -- Fallacy of Making Assumptions as to Motives -- Fallacy of Value-based Warrants Filtering Causes -- Issues in Causal Arguments -- Heaps -- The Slippery Slope -- Famous Causal Arguments -- Did Separate but Equal Schools Cause Damage to Black Children? -- Do Lower Taxes Increase Federal Government Revenues? -- What Caused the Collapse of the Soviet Union? -- What Effects Have Been Caused by the Increase of CO2 in the Atmosphere? -- Case Studies: For Further Investigation -- What Did Cause the Decline in Crime Rates? -- Will Changing the Drinking Age Change the Culture of Drinking? -- Would Legalizing Marijuana Cause an Increase in the Use of "Hard" Drugs? -- Do Childhood Vaccines Cause Autism? -- Are Social Networking Sites and the Internet Generally Destroying Human Interaction? -- Conclusion -- Summary of Causal Arguments -- ch. 20 Argument from Sign -- Introduction -- The Structure of This Form of Reasoning. Contents note continued: Toulmin Model -- Example 1: Smoke -- Example 2: Admission to Grad School -- Case Study -- What Makes Argument by Sign Valid? -- Single Reliable Cause -- The Implications of a Second Cause -- Independent and Dependent Signs -- Dealing with Probabilistic Signs -- Making a Stronger Argument -- Arguing about Signs -- What Is the Stasis of This Argument? -- Defending and Rebutting -- "X Is Consistent with Y" -- Selecting Signs -- Famous Arguments from Sign -- Sherlock Holmes, Dr. House, and All Who Detect and Diagnose -- The Cover of the Beatles' Abbey Road Album -- The Police Officer Deciding to Arrest Someone for DWI -- Signs of God -- Signs of Child Abuse -- Examples for Further Study -- What Are the Signs of a Good Job? -- What Are the Signs You Should End a Relationship? -- What Are the Signs This Person Is Unreliable or Lying? -- What Does Clothing Signify? -- Conclusion -- Summary of Argument from Sign -- ch. 21 Argument by Dilemma -- Introduction. Contents note continued: Understanding Argument by Dilemma -- Rhetorical Impact -- How Does Argument by Dilemma Work? -- Implications -- Issues with Argument by Dilemma -- Making and Defending Your Argument -- Being Prepared to Justify Your Case -- Rebutting the Argument -- Case Study: Civil Liberties vs. National Security -- Why Is This Dilemma so Widely Accepted? -- Famous Dilemmas -- Socrates in Plato's Dialogs -- From the Old Testament -- The Larger Question of Dualistic Thinking -- Conclusion -- Summary of Argument by Dilemma -- ch. 22 Argument from Authority -- Introduction -- Why Do We Need This? -- Understanding Argument from Authority -- Developing an Argument from Authority -- Issues with Argument from Authority -- For Further Discussion -- Anonymous Sources in the Media -- The People You Meet at a Party -- Conclusion -- Summary of Argument from Authority -- ch. 23 Remember This -- What Does It Boil Down To? -- The Five Things -- A Few Final Thoughts. Cover 1 Title Page 2 Copyright Page 3 Contents 4 Preface 14 PART I: Getting Started 18 CHAPTER 1 Why Study Argument? 18 The Alternatives to Argumentation 18 Argumentation Is a Requirement for Democracy 20 An Asset for Life 21 How to Use This Book 21 CHAPTER 2 What Is an Argument? 23 Introduction 23 The Definition of an Argument 23 The Boundaries of Argument 26 Implications of Our Definition 31 Argumentation Requires Sharing Assumptions 33 Argumentation Is a Communal Process for Reaching Consensus 36 Conclusion 37 Summary of What Is an Argument? 37 CHAPTER 3 Forms of Proof 38 Introduction 38 The Four Forms of Proof 38 Assessing Arguments 43 Choosing What Form of Proof to Use 45 Exercises 46 Summary 47 CHAPTER 4 Modeling Argument (The Toulmin Model) 48 Introduction 48 The Model 48 Claims 50 Warrants 54 Backing 57 Fields of Argument 57 Working with the Model 58 Using Multiple Grounds 64 Argument Networks 65 An Exercise 67 Conclusion 68 Summary of the Toulmin Model 68 PART II: Analyzing Claims 70 CHAPTER 5 Introduction to Claim Types 70 Introduction 70 Three Types of Claims: Fact Claims, Value Claims, and Policy Claims 70 What Type Is It Really? 72 Conclusion 74 CHAPTER 6 Analyzing Fact Claims 76 Introduction 76 Can We Know What Truth Is? 77 Postmodernism or Sophisticated Modernism? 79 Welcome to the Community of Truth Seekers 80 That’s Just a Theory 81 That’s Just Your Opinion 82 Do We Vote on Truth? 83 But What About a Hero? 84 Meanwhile, Back in Your World 85 Developing a Fact Claim 86 Conclusion 86 Summary for Fact Claims 86 CHAPTER 7 Analyzing Value Claims 88 Introduction 88 Why Value Arguments Are Difficult 89 Facts and Values 94 Clarifying Types of Values 98 Arguing Values 103 Aesthetic Arguments 108 Examples of Value Disputes 109 Value Conflicts 112 Conclusion 115 Summary of Value Claims 115 CHAPTER 8 Analyzing Policy Claims 117 Introduction 117 Aspects of Policy Claims 118 What Is Unique About Policy Claims? 121 Building Your Policy Claim 129 A Model for Constructing a Policy Argument 133 Responding to Policy Arguments 133 Common Fallacies and Problems 134 Cases of Complexity 136 Conclusion 137 Summary of Policy Claims 137 PART III: Developing Your Argument 139 CHAPTER 9 Kairos: The Context of Your Argument 139 Introduction 139 Audience Analysis: Who Receives Your Argument? 140 Practical Considerations 148 How Will You Learn about Your Audience? 148 The Medium of My Message 150 The Occasion 154 History 156 Assessing Context: Some Examples 157 Case Studies 159 Integrating the Dimensions of Kairos: What Is the Persuasive Task I Face? 160 Changing the Context 162 Conclusion 163 Summary of Kairos 163 CHAPTER 10 Ethos: Developing Your Credibility 165 Introduction 165 Understanding Credibility 166 Models of Credibility 170 Time and Credibility 174 Issues with Credibility 176 Developing Your Credibility 180 Attacking Credibility: The Ad Hominem Argument 182 Case Studies 186 Conclusion 188 Summary of Ethos 188 CHAPTER 11 Presenting Your Argument 189 Introduction 189 The Classical Model 190 Other Argument Structures 199 Still More Argument Structures 204 Oral Models 205 Rebuttal Models 205 Choosing a Model 206 Choosing How to Present Your Argument 211 Practicalities 213 Conclusion 214 PART IV: Supporting and Defending Your Argument 215 CHAPTER 12 Finding Evidence 215 Introduction 215 Finding Evidence 217 Assessing Evidence 220 Assessing Special Types of Evidence 228 For Further Learning 235 CHAPTER 13 Evidence and Your Argument 236 Introduction 236 Selecting Evidence for Your Argument 236 How Well Is Your Argument Supported? 240 Citing Evidence 241 Listing Sources 246 Creating Evidence 246 Ten Things That Aren’t True 248 CHAPTER 14 Rebutting Arguments 253 Introduction 253 Stasis Theory: What Are We Arguing About? 254 The Burden of Proof 257 Ways of Responding 259 Placing and Framing Your Response 263 Rebuttals That Aren’t Actually Rebuttals 266 Beyond Winning and Losing: Where Rebuttal Takes Your Argument 269 Famous Rebuttals 271 Conclusion: Rebuttal as a Way to Truth 273 Summary of Rebutting Arguments 274 PART V: Forms of Reasoning 275 CHAPTER 15 Introduction to Forms of Reasoning 275 The Relationship of Claim Types and Forms of Reasoning 275 CHAPTER 16 Definitional Arguments 278 Introduction 278 Types of Definitional Arguments 279 Defining a Definition 279 Argument Strategy 280 Definitions in the Three Types of Claims 281 Where Do Definitions Come From? 282 Changing Our Definitions and Categories 283 “Well Defined” for What Context? 284 Thinking about Contexts 289 The Role of Pathos 290 For Further Study 292 Conclusion 296 Summary of Definitional Arguments 296 CHAPTER 17 Argument by Example 298 Introduction 298 Understanding Argument by Example 299 Informal Reasoning by Example 301 Examples and Generalizations 304 Statistics: Formal Argument by Example 306 How Argument by Example Can Go Wrong 309 Contemporary Issues 310 Famous Arguments by Example 315 Conclusion 317 Summary of Argument by Example 317 CHAPTER 18 Argument by Analogy and Parallel Case 319 Introduction 319 What Are We Talking About? 320 Argument by Analogy 322 Using the Toulmin model 324 Aspects of Analogies 327 Analogies That Don’t Persuade 330 Famous Analogies 333 Rebutting Analogies 337 Summary of Argument by Analogy 337 Argument by Parallel Case 338 Is “Class of Objects” Always an Unambiguous Concept? 341 Famous Parallel Case Arguments 342 Argument by Precedent 342 Argument by Precedent 344 Extended Analogy 345 Conclusion 346 CHAPTER 19 Causal Argument 347 Introduction 347 Causal Arguments 348 Can You Prove Anything? 348 What Sort of Causation Is It? 350 Correlation, Causation, and Controlled Experiments 353 Explaining Our Data: Theories about Causal Links 356 Beyond “X Causes Y” 357 Causal Arguments in Value Claims 359 Issues in Causal Arguments 361 Famous Causal Arguments 361 Case Studies: For Further Investigation 363 Conclusion 366 Summary of Causal Arguments 366 CHAPTER 20 Argument from Sign 368 Introduction 368 The Structure of This Form of Reasoning 369 Case Study 370 What Makes Argument by Sign Valid? 372 Arguing about Signs 375 Famous Arguments from Sign 376 Examples for Further Study 380 Conclusion 380 Summary of Argument from Sign 381 CHAPTER 21 Argument by Dilemma 382 Introduction 382 Understanding Argument by Dilemma 383 Issues with Argument by Dilemma 385 Making and Defending Your Argument 386 Case Study: Civil Liberties vs. National Security 387 Famous Dilemmas 389 The Larger Question of Dualistic Thinking 390 Conclusion 392 Summary of Argument by Dilemma 392 CHAPTER 22 Argument from Authority 394 Introduction 394 Why Do We Need This? 394 Understanding Argument from Authority 395 Developing an Argument from Authority 396 Issues with Argument from Authority 397 For Further Discussion 398 Conclusion 399 Summary of Argument from Authority 399 CHAPTER 23 Remember This 401 What Does It Boil Down To? 401 The Five Things 401 A Few Final Thoughts 402 Appendix: ArgumentsWe Don’t Ever Want to Hear Again 403 Works Cited 404 Credits 407 Index 408 A 408 B 409 C 409 D 410 E 411 F 412 G 412 H 412 I 412 J 413 K 413 L 413 M 413 N 414 O 414 P 414 Q 415 R 415 S 415 T 416 U 416 V 417 W 417 Z 417 Before you purchase, check with your instructor or review your course syllabus to ensure that you select the correct ISBN . 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Check with the seller prior to purchase. -- Uses a conceptual framework to discuss argumentation This text uses a conceptual framework involving three types of claims (fact, value, policy) that are advanced by forms of reasoning (definition, example, cause, sign, etc.). This framework describes a wider variety of arguments. Learning Goals Upon completing this book, readers will be able