Electrical Engineer's Reference Book, Sixteenth Edition

For ease of use, this edition has been divided into the following subject sections: general principles; materials and processes; control, power electronics and drives; environment; power generation; transmission and distribution; power systems; sectors of electricity use. New chapters and major revisions include: industrial instrumentation; digital control systems; programmable controllers; electronic power conversion; environmental control; hazardous area technology; electromagnetic compatibility; alternative energy sources; alternating current generators; electromagnetic transients; power system planning; reactive power plant and FACTS controllers; electricity economics and trading; power quality. *An essential source of techniques, data and principles for all practising electrical engineers *Written by an international team of experts from engineering companies and universities *Includes a major new section on control systems, PLCs and microprocessors Contents......Page 6 Preface......Page 10 Section A......Page 12 1 Units, Mathematics and Physical Quantites......Page 14 1.1 International unit system......Page 16 1.2 Mathematics......Page 17 1.3 Physical quantities......Page 30 1.5 Electricity......Page 39 2 Electrotechnology......Page 46 2.1 Nomenclature......Page 48 2.2 Thermal effects......Page 51 2.3 Electrochemical effects......Page 55 2.4 Magnetic field effects......Page 57 2.5 Electric field effects......Page 64 2.6 electromagnetic field effects......Page 68 2.7 Electrical discharges......Page 70 3 Network Analysis......Page 76 3.2 Basic network analysis......Page 78 3.3 Power-system network analysis......Page 103 Section B Materials & Processes......Page 120 4 Fundamental Properties of Materials......Page 122 4.4 Electrically conducting materials......Page 124 4.5 Magnetic materials......Page 125 4.6 Dielectric materials......Page 127 4.7 Optical materials......Page 128 4.8 The plasmac state......Page 129 5 Conductors and Superconductors......Page 130 5.1 Conducting materials......Page 132 5.2 Superconductors......Page 138 6 Semiconductor, Thick and Thin-Film Microcircuits......Page 144 6.1 Silicon, silicon dioxide, thick- and thin-film technology......Page 146 6.2 Thick- and thin-film microcircuits......Page 148 7 Insulation......Page 154 7.1 Insulating materials......Page 156 7.2 Properties and testing......Page 157 7.3 Gaseous dielectrics......Page 161 7.4 Liquid dielectrics......Page 164 7.5 Semi-fluid and fusible materials......Page 166 7.6 Varnishes, enamels, paints and lacquers......Page 172 7.7 Solid dielectrics......Page 173 7.9 Irradiation effects......Page 183 7.10 Fundamentals of dielectric theory......Page 185 7.11 Polymeric insulation for high voltage outdoor applications......Page 188 8 Magnetic Materials......Page 190 8.2 Electrical steels including silicon steels......Page 192 8.3 Soft irons and relay steels......Page 194 8.4 Ferrites......Page 196 8.5 Nickel-iron alloys......Page 200 8.7 Permanent magnet materials......Page 202 9 Electroheat and Materials Processing......Page 208 9.2 Direct resistance heating......Page 210 9.3 Indirect resistance heating......Page 212 9.4 Electric ovens and furnaces......Page 216 9.5 Induction heating......Page 217 9.6 Metal melting......Page 222 9.7 Dielectric heating......Page 227 9.9 Plasma torches......Page 231 9.10 Semiconductor plasma processing......Page 233 9.11 Lasers......Page 237 10 Welding and Soldering......Page 246 10.1 Arc welding......Page 248 10.2 Resistance welding......Page 274 10.3 Fuses......Page 281 10.4 Contacts......Page 283 10.5 Special alloys......Page 287 10.6 Solders......Page 289 10.8 Temperature-sensitive bimetals......Page 290 10.9 Nuclear-reactor materials......Page 291 10.10 Amorphous materials......Page 294 Section C Control......Page 298 11 Electrical Measurement......Page 300 11.4 National and international measurement standards......Page 302 11.5 Direct-acting analyogue measuring instrucments......Page 303 11.6 Integrating (energy) metering......Page 308 11.7 Electronic instrumentation......Page 309 11.8 Oscilloscopes......Page 316 11.9 Potentiometers and bridges......Page 322 11.10 Measuring and protection transformers......Page 331 11.11 Magnetic measurements......Page 333 11.12 Transducers......Page 335 11.13 Data recording......Page 341 12 Industrial Instrumentation......Page 344 12.1 Introduction......Page 346 12.2 Temperature......Page 349 12.3 Flow......Page 352 12.4 Pressure......Page 359 12.5 Level transducers......Page 363 12.6 Position transducers......Page 367 12.7 Velocity and acceleration......Page 372 12.8 Strain gauges, loadcells and weighing......Page 374 12.9 Fieldbus systems......Page 378 12.10 Installation notes......Page 382 13 Control Systems......Page 384 13.2 Laplace transforms and the transfer function......Page 386 13.4 Feedback......Page 389 13.5 Generally desirable and acceptable behaviour......Page 390 13.6 Stability......Page 391 13.7 Classification of system and static accuracy......Page 392 13.8 Transient behaviour......Page 393 13.9 Root-locus method......Page 396 13.10 Frequency-response methods......Page 398 13.11 State-space description......Page 403 13.12 Sampled-data systems......Page 407 13.14 Sampler and zero-order hold......Page 408 13.15 Block diagrams......Page 409 13.16 Closed-loop systems......Page 410 13.18 Example......Page 411 13.20 Simulation......Page 413 13.21 Multivariable control......Page 416 13.22 Dealing with non-linear elements......Page 418 13.23 Distrubances......Page 425 13.24 Ratio control......Page 428 13.25 Transit delays......Page 430 13.26 Stability......Page 431 13.27 Industrial controllers......Page 435 13.28 Digital control algorithms......Page 440 13.29 Auto-tuners......Page 442 13.30 Practical tuning methods......Page 443 14 Digital Control Systems......Page 448 14.1 Introduction......Page 450 14.2 Logic families......Page 452 14.3 Combinational logic......Page 458 14.4 Storage......Page 466 14.5 Timers and monostables......Page 470 14.6 Arithmetic circuits......Page 471 14.7 Counters and shift registers......Page 474 14.8 Sequencing and event driven logic......Page 477 14.9 Analog interfacing......Page 480 14.10 Practical considerations......Page 481 14.11 Data sheet notations......Page 483 15 Microprocessors......Page 484 15.2 Structured design of programmable logic systems......Page 486 15.3 Microprogrammable systems......Page 489 15.4 Programmable systems......Page 491 15.5 Processor instruction sets......Page 497 15.6 Program structures......Page 500 15.7 Reduced instruction set computers (RISC)......Page 502 15.8 Software design......Page 504 15.9 Embedded systems......Page 506 16 Programmable Controllers......Page 510 16.1 Introduction......Page 512 16.2 The programmable controller......Page 515 16.3 Programming methods......Page 522 16.4 Numerics......Page 538 16.5 Distributed systems and fieldbus......Page 550 16.6 Graphics......Page 554 16.8 Safety......Page 557 Section D Power Electronics and Drives......Page 562 17 Power Semiconductor Devices......Page 564 17.1 Junction diodes......Page 567 17.2 Bipolar power transistors and Darlingtons......Page 570 17.3 Thyristors......Page 577 17.4 Schottky barrier diodes......Page 588 17.5 MOSFET......Page 590 17.6 The insualted gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)......Page 595 18 Electronic Power Conversion......Page 602 18.1 Electronic power conversion principles......Page 604 18.2 Switch-mode power supplies......Page 606 18.3 Dc-Ac conversion......Page 621 18.4 Ac-Dc conversion......Page 627 18.5 Ac/ac conversion......Page 635 18.6 Resonant techniques......Page 638 18.7 Modular systems......Page 640 18.8 Further reading......Page 644 19 Electrical Machine Drives......Page 646 19.2 Fundamental control requirements for electrical machines......Page 648 19.3 Drive power circuits......Page 654 19.4 Drive control......Page 667 19.5 Applications and drive selection......Page 673 19.6 electromagnetic compatibility......Page 678 20 Motor and Actuators......Page 680 20.2 Electromagnetic devices......Page 682 20.3 Industrial rotary and linear motors......Page 694 Section E Environment......Page 724 21 Lighting......Page 726 21.2 Quantities and units......Page 728 21.3 Photometric concepts......Page 729 21.4 Lighting design terminology......Page 731 21.5 Lamps......Page 733 21.6 Lighting design......Page 745 21.7 Design techniques......Page 752 21.8 Lighting applications......Page 754 22 Environmental Control......Page 758 22.2 Environmental comfort......Page 760 22.3 Energy requirements......Page 768 22.4 Heating and warm-air systems......Page 771 22.5 Control......Page 775 22.6 Energy conservation......Page 779 22.7 Interfaces and associated data......Page 781 23 Electromagnetic Compatibility......Page 786 23.3 The EMC model......Page 788 23.4 EMC requirements......Page 790 23.7 Printed circuit boards......Page 791 23.9 Power supplies and power-line filters......Page 792 23.11 Enclosure design......Page 793 23.12 Interface cable connections......Page 794 23.14 System design......Page 796 23.16 Conformity assessment......Page 798 23.17 EMC testing and measurements......Page 799 23.18 Management plans......Page 800 24 Health and Safety......Page 802 24.1 The scope of electrical safety considerations......Page 804 24.2 The nature of electrical injuries......Page 807 24.3 Failure of electrical equipment......Page 810 25 Hazardous Area Technology......Page 814 25.1 A brief UK history......Page 816 25.2 General certification requirements......Page 817 25.4 Explosion protection concepts......Page 818 25.5 ATEX certification......Page 823 25.6 Global view......Page 824 25.7 Useful websites......Page 825 Section F Power Generation......Page 826 26 Prime Movers......Page 828 26.1 Steam generating plant......Page 830 26.2 Steam turbine plant......Page 833 26.3 Gas turbine plant......Page 843 26.4 Hydroelectric plant......Page 847 26.5 Diesel-engine plant......Page 856 27 Alternative Energy Sources......Page 870 27.1 Introduction......Page 872 27.2 Solar......Page 873 27.3 Marine energy......Page 875 27.4 Hydro......Page 878 27.5 Wind......Page 879 27.6 Geothermal energy......Page 881 27.7 Biofuels......Page 882 27.8 Direct conversion......Page 885 27.9 Fuel cells......Page 886 27.10 Heat pumps......Page 890 28 Alternating Current Generators......Page 902 28.1 Introduction......Page 904 28.2 Airgap flux and open-circuit......Page 905 28.3 Alternating current windings......Page 910 28.4 Coils and insulation......Page 912 28.5 Temperature rise......Page 917 28.6 Output equation......Page 918 28.7 Armature reaction......Page 921 28.8 Reactances and time constants......Page 923 28.9 Steady-state operation......Page 926 28.10 Synchronising......Page 928 28.11 Operating charts......Page 930 28.12 On-load excitation......Page 932 28.13 Sudden three-phase short circuit......Page 933 28.14 Excitation systems......Page 935 28.15 Turbogenerators......Page 942 28.17 Hydrogenerators......Page 947 28.18 Salient-pole generators other than hydrogenerators......Page 951 28.19 Synchronous compensators......Page 953 28.21 Standards......Page 954 29 Batteries......Page 962 29.2 Cells and batteries......Page 964 29.3 Primary cells......Page 965 29.4 Secondary cells and batteries......Page 968 29.5 Battery applications......Page 974 29.6 Anodising......Page 975 29.7 Electrodeposition......Page 977 29.8 Hydrogen and oxygen electrolysis......Page 978 Section G Transmission and Distribution......Page 982 30 Overhead lines......Page 984 30.2 Conductors and earth wires......Page 986 30.3 Conductor fittings......Page 990 30.4 Electrical characteristics......Page 991 30.5 Insulators......Page 993 30.6 Supports......Page 996 30.8 Loadings......Page 999 31 Cables......Page 1004 31.1 Introduction......Page 1006 31.2 Cable components......Page 1009 31.3 General wiring cables and flexible cords......Page 1014 31.4 Supply distribution cables......Page 1018 31.5 Transmission cables......Page 1026 31.6 Current-carrying capacity......Page 1033 31.7 Jointing and accessories......Page 1036 31.8 Cables fault location......Page 1038 32 HVDC......Page 1048 32.1 Introduction......Page 1050 32.2 Applications of HVDC......Page 1051 32.3 Principles of HVDC converters......Page 1052 32.4 Transmission arrangements......Page 1056 32.5 Converter station design......Page 1058 32.6 Insulation co-ordination of HVVDC converter stations......Page 1063 32.7 HVDC thyristor valves......Page 1066 32.8 Design of harmonic filters for HVDC converters......Page 1071 32.9 Reactive power considerations......Page 1076 32.10 Control of HVDC......Page 1077 32.11 Ac system damping controls......Page 1081 32.12 Interaction between ac and dc systems......Page 1082 32.13 Multiterminal HVDC systems......Page 1089 32.14 Future trends......Page 1091 33 Power Transformers......Page 1094 33.2 Magnetic circuits......Page 1096 33.3 Windigns and insulation......Page 1100 33.4 Connections......Page 1106 33.7 On-load tap changing......Page 1109 33.8 Cooling......Page 1111 33.9 Fittings......Page 1113 33.11 Auto-transformers......Page 1114 33.12 Special types......Page 1115 33.13 Testing......Page 1116 33.14 Maintenance......Page 1120 33.15 Surge protection......Page 1122 33.16 Purchasing specfications......Page 1123 34 Switchgear......Page 1124 34.1 Circuit-switching devices......Page 1126 34.2 Materials......Page 1142 34.3 Primary-circuit-protection devices......Page 1144 34.4 LV switchgear......Page 1148 34.5 HV secondary distribution switchgear......Page 1150 34.7 HV transmission switchgear......Page 1152 34.8 Generator switchgear......Page 1153 34.9 Switching conditions......Page 1154 34.10 Switchgear testing......Page 1157 34.13 Future developments......Page 1158 35 Protection......Page 1160 35.1 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection......Page 1162 35.2 Application of protective systems......Page 1179 35.3 Testing and commissioning......Page 1184 35.4 Overvoltage protection......Page 1186 36 Electromagnetic Transients......Page 1190 36.2 Basic concepts of transient analysis......Page 1192 36.3 Protection of system and equipment against transient overvoltage......Page 1196 36.4 Power system simulators......Page 1197 36.5 Waveforms associated with the electromagnetic transient phenomena......Page 1199 37 Optical Fibres in Power Systems......Page 1206 37.2 Optical fibre fundamentals......Page 1208 37.3 Optical fibre cables......Page 1213 37.4 British and International Standards......Page 1217 37.5 Optical fibre telemetry on overhead power lines......Page 1218 37.6 Power equipment monitoring with optical fibre sensors......Page 1220 38 Installation......Page 1224 38.2 Regulations and specfications......Page 1226 38.3 High-voltage supplies......Page 1227 38.5 Substations......Page 1228 38.6 Wiring systems......Page 1232 38.7 LIghting and small power......Page 1234 38.8 Floor trunking......Page 1235 38.11 Low-voltage switchgear and protection......Page 1236 38.12 Transformers......Page 1240 38.14 Earthing......Page 1242 38.15 Inspection and testing......Page 1246 Section H Power Systems......Page 1250 39 Power System Planning......Page 1252 39.1 The changing electricity supply industry (ESI)......Page 1254 39.2 Nature of an electrical power system......Page 1255 39.3 Types of generating plant and characteristics......Page 1258 39.6 Environmental sustainable planning......Page 1260 40 Power System Operation and Control......Page 1262 40.2 Objectives and requirements......Page 1264 40.3 System description......Page 1265 40.4 Data acquisition and telemetering......Page 1267 40.5 Decentralised control: excitation systems and control characteristics of synchronous machines......Page 1271 40.6 Decentralised control: electronic turbine controllers......Page 1285 40.7 Decentralised control: substation automation......Page 1297 40.8 Decentralised control: pulse controllers for voltage control with tap-changing transfomers......Page 1299 40.10 System operation......Page 1304 40.12 Distribtion automation and demand side management......Page 1305 40.13 Reliability considerations for system control......Page 1308 41 Reactive Power Plant and FACTS Controllers......Page 1312 41.2 Basic concepts......Page 1314 41.3 Variations of voltage with load......Page 1316 41.4 The management of vars......Page 1321 41.5 The development of FACTS controllers......Page 1322 41.6 Shunt compensation......Page 1330 41.7 Series compensation......Page 1341 41.8 Controllers with shunt and series components......Page 1345 41.9 Special aspects of var compensation......Page 1346 41.10 Future prospects......Page 1350 42 Electricity Economics and Trading......Page 1352 42.2 Summary of electricity pricing principles......Page 1354 42.3 Electricity markets......Page 1355 42.5 Reactive market......Page 1356 43 Power Quality......Page 1358 43.2 Definition of power quality terms......Page 1360 43.3 Sources of problems......Page 1361 43.6 Amerlioration of power quality problems......Page 1364 Section I Sectors of Electricity Use......Page 1368 44 Road Transport......Page 1370 44.1 Electrical equipment of road transport vehicles......Page 1372 44.2 Light rail transit......Page 1382 44.3 Battery vehicles......Page 1386 44.4 Road traffic control and information systems......Page 1391 45 Railways......Page 1396 45.1 Railway electrification......Page 1398 45.2 Diesel-electric traction......Page 1406 45.3 Systems, EMC and standards......Page 1408 45.4 Railway signalling and control......Page 1409 46 Ships......Page 1422 46.4 Dc installations......Page 1424 46.7 Machines and transformers......Page 1425 46.8 Switchgear......Page 1427 46.11 Steering gear......Page 1428 46.13 Lighting......Page 1429 46.18 Deck auxiliaries......Page 1430 46.19 Remote and automatic control systems......Page 1431 46.20 Tankers......Page 1433 46.24 Electric propulsion......Page 1434 47 Aircraft......Page 1440 47.2 Engine technology......Page 1442 47.3 Wing technology......Page 1443 47.5 Flight-control systems......Page 1445 47.6 Systems technology......Page 1446 47.7 Hydraulic systems......Page 1447 47.8 Air-frame mounted accessory drives......Page 1448 47.9 Electrohydraulic flight controls......Page 1450 47.11 Aircraft electric power......Page 1451 47.12 Summary of power systems......Page 1452 47.13 Environmental control system......Page 1453 47.14 Digital power-digital load management......Page 1456 48 Mining Applications......Page 1460 48.1 General......Page 1462 48.2 Power supplies......Page 1463 48.3 Winders......Page 1464 48.4 Underground transport......Page 1465 48.5 Coal-face layout......Page 1468 48.6 Power loaders......Page 1470 48.8 Flameproof and intrinsically safe equipment......Page 1471 48.9 Gate-end boxes......Page 1473 48.10 Flameproof motors......Page 1476 48.11 Cables, couplers, plugs and sockets......Page 1477 48.13 Underground lighting......Page 1479 48.14 Monitoring and control......Page 1480 49 Standards and Certification......Page 1482 49.1 Introduction......Page 1484 49.2 Organisations preparing electrical standards......Page 1486 49.3 The structure and application of standards......Page 1491 49.5 Sources of standards information......Page 1495 For ease of use, this edition has been divided into the following subject sections: general principles; materials and processes; control, power electronics and drives; environment; power generation; transmission and distribution; power systems; sectors of electricity use.

New chapters and major revisions include: industrial instrumentation; digital control systems; programmable controllers; electronic power conversion; environmental control; hazardous area technology; electromagnetic compatibility; alternative energy sources; alternating current generators; electromagnetic transients; power system planning; reactive power plant and FACTS controllers; electricity economics and trading; power quality.

*An essential source of techniques, data and principles for all practising electrical engineers
*Written by an international team of experts from engineering companies and universities
*Includes a major new section on control systems, PLCs and microprocessors