Energy And Environmental Security In Developing Countries

This book presents a comprehensive account of the energy and environmental security perspectives of the developing countries. To address the subject comprehensively, it covers four geographically diverse clusters of developing countries from across the world. The regions particularly focused on are: South Asia, South East Asia, Sub Sahara Africa, and Latin America. It is a valuable contribution to the debate, and policy and research activities around the subjects of energy and environmental security in the developing countries and beyond. The book covers the interwoven subjects of energy security and environmental security in the context of developing countries for the first time. It discusses the latest dimensions, challenges, and solutions around taking into account technical, economic, social, and policy perspectives. It incorporates up-to-date data, case studies, and comparative assessment. This edited book has contributions from established as well as emerging scholars from around the world. It benefits a wide range of stakeholders from the fields of energy, environment, and sustainable development. It is of help to academics, researchers, and analysts in these fields besides having appeal for policymakers, and national and international developmental organizations. It also helps developing countries to learn from each other’s experiences. Contents......Page 6 1 Age of Sustainable Development......Page 9 2 Energy- and Environmental Security......Page 12 3 Developing Countries’ Outlook......Page 14 4 Regions in Focus......Page 16 4.1 Southeast Asia......Page 17 4.2 South Asia......Page 18 4.3 Sub-Saharan Africa......Page 19 5 Structure of the Book......Page 20 References......Page 21 Regional and Country Analysis......Page 24 Energy and Environmental Security in Developing Countries Case Studies of Countries in Southeast Asia......Page 25 1.1 Current Scenario and Trends......Page 26 1.2 Energy Security Issues......Page 27 1.3 Impact of Climate Change......Page 28 2 Energy Security and Macroeconomics......Page 29 2.1 Trends in Non-Renewable Energy......Page 30 2.2 Trends in Renewable Energy......Page 31 4 Energy Demand and Supply in Southeast Asia......Page 34 4.1 Oil, Coal and Gas......Page 36 4.3 Renewable Energy......Page 38 5 Energy Efficiency......Page 48 6 Possible Solutions......Page 49 References......Page 51 Energy Security: A Case Study of Indonesia......Page 55 1 Introduction......Page 56 2.1 Definition of Energy Security......Page 58 2.2 Energy Security Indicators......Page 59 3.1 Primary Energy Reserves......Page 62 3.2 Primary Energy Production and Consumption......Page 63 3.3 Export—Import of Primary Energy......Page 65 3.4 Primary Energy Supply......Page 67 3.6 Energy Access......Page 68 4.2 Dimension Results......Page 70 5 Conclusion......Page 78 References......Page 79 Energy and Environmental Scenario of South Asia......Page 81 2 South Asia: Regional Overview......Page 82 3.1 Energy Accessibility......Page 84 3.2 Afghanistan......Page 86 3.3 Bangladesh......Page 88 3.4 Bhutan......Page 89 3.5 India......Page 90 3.6 Maldives......Page 92 3.7 Nepal......Page 93 3.8 Pakistan......Page 94 3.9 Sri Lanka......Page 95 4.1 Renewable Energy Advancement in India......Page 96 4.2 Renewable Energy Developments in Pakistan......Page 98 4.3 Renewable Energy Progress in Bangladesh......Page 99 5 Prospects of Sustainable Development Goals......Page 100 5.1 Challenges Towards Sustainable Energy Solutions......Page 102 6 Environmental Challenges Facing South Asia......Page 103 7 Regional Energy Trade......Page 105 8 Conclusions......Page 106 References......Page 107 1 Introduction......Page 110 1.1 Indian Geography......Page 111 1.2 Energy Demand......Page 112 1.3 Energy Versus Environment......Page 114 2.1 Conventional Energy Sources......Page 116 2.2 Non-conventional Energy Sources......Page 119 3 Organizations for Energy and Environment......Page 126 3.3 Private Sectors and NGOs......Page 127 4.1 Carbon Emissions......Page 129 4.2 Global Warming and Climate Change......Page 134 4.3 Impact on the Life......Page 138 4.4 Impact on Economy and Valuable Assets of the Country......Page 142 5 Remedies and Solutions......Page 143 5.2 Tree Plantation, Growth, and Care......Page 144 5.4 Government Initiatives and Mandatory Rules......Page 145 6 Summary......Page 147 References......Page 148 Energy and Environmental Security Nexus in Pakistan......Page 151 1.1 Energy Security......Page 152 2 Energy-Environmental-Human Security Nexus......Page 153 3 Current Energy Scenario of Pakistan and the Contribution of Renewables......Page 156 4 Energy Generation and Environmental Security in Pakistan......Page 157 5 Renewable Energy and Environmental Security......Page 160 6 Energy-Climate Change and Environmental Security Paradigm for Pakistan......Page 163 7 Energy and Environmental Security of Pakistan in the Context of SDGs......Page 166 8.1 Good Energy Governance......Page 171 8.4 Equitable Access to Affordable Energy......Page 173 8.6 Environmental Security......Page 174 References......Page 175 Sustainable Energy Infrastructure Planning Framework: Transition to a Sustainable Electricity Generation System in Bangladesh......Page 177 1 Introduction......Page 178 2 Energy Planning Frameworks or Models in the Literature......Page 180 3 The Proposed Framework and Its Objectives......Page 183 3.1 Levelized Cost of Electricity......Page 185 3.2 Sustainable Development and Sustainability......Page 187 4 Case Study: Bangladesh......Page 194 5 Discussion......Page 198 References......Page 200 Sustainable Energy Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa......Page 203 1 Introduction......Page 204 2 Energy and Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa......Page 205 3 Feasibility of Energy Transition......Page 207 3.1 Generation......Page 210 3.2 Transmission......Page 215 3.3 Distribution......Page 216 4.1 Policies......Page 217 4.2 Funding......Page 218 4.3 Social Challenges......Page 222 4.5 RE Resource Availability and Environmental Impacts......Page 223 5.2 Economy and Jobs Security......Page 224 5.3 Education and Health......Page 225 6 The Future of Energy Transition......Page 226 References......Page 228 Energy and Environmental Security in Nigeria: The Latest Dimensions......Page 231 1 Introduction......Page 232 2.1 Energy Profile of Nigeria......Page 233 2.2 Environmental Profile of Nigeria......Page 234 2.3 Security Profile of Nigeria......Page 235 3.1 Energy Security in Nigeria......Page 236 3.2 Environmental Security in Nigeria......Page 243 3.3 Energy and Environmental Security in West Africa......Page 245 4 Considerations in the Development of Energy and Environmental Security in Nigeria......Page 247 5 The Nexus of Energy and Environmental Security with Economic, Social and Political Growth in Nigeria......Page 249 6.1 Politics & Governance......Page 251 7 Conclusion and Projection......Page 252 References......Page 253 The Evolution of Electrification in South Africa and Its Energy-Environmental Impact......Page 256 1 Background......Page 257 2.1 A Brief History......Page 258 2.2 Recent Shifts in Electrification: A Trendsetter in Africa......Page 262 2.3 Roadblocks in Policy Setting......Page 264 3 Electricity Technology Mix and Forecasts......Page 266 4 Impact Damage Assessment of Prominent Technologies......Page 267 4.1 Coal Fired Power Plant......Page 268 4.2 On Shore Wind Power Plant......Page 272 4.3 Concentrated Solar Power Plant......Page 275 5 Comparative Damage Cost Assessments......Page 278 6 Conclusion and Way Forward......Page 279 References......Page 280 The Politics of Electricity Access and Environmental Security in Mozambique......Page 282 1 Introduction......Page 283 2 The Electricity Access Challenge......Page 284 3 The Benefits of Electrification......Page 287 3.1 Summary......Page 289 4 Electricity Access in Sub-Saharan Africa—A Case Study of Mozambique......Page 290 5 The Case of Mozambique......Page 291 6 Mozambique’s Colonial History Influences Its Evolving Energy System......Page 296 7 Broader Governance Challenges......Page 297 8 Conclusions......Page 299 References......Page 300 Energy and Environmental Security—Latin America’s Balancing Challenge......Page 306 1 Introduction......Page 307 2 Energy Security—Ambiguity and Evolution......Page 308 3 Energy Security in Latin America......Page 312 3.1 Resource Nationalism and Energy Security......Page 313 3.3 Regional Energy Conflicts......Page 315 3.4 Local Energy Resource Inequality Conflicts......Page 316 4 Ensuring Security of Energy Supply and Demand......Page 317 5 Environmental Security......Page 319 5.1 Environmental Threat......Page 320 5.3 Energy Access......Page 322 5.5 Renewable Energy......Page 323 6 Energy Generation and Consumption......Page 324 7 Energy-Environment Nexus in the Context of Latin American Countries......Page 327 8 Conclusion......Page 329 References......Page 330 Use of Solid Recovered Fuels to Address Energy and Environmental Problems in Argentina......Page 333 1.1 Energy and Environmental Scenario in Argentina......Page 334 1.2 Objective and Scope of the Study......Page 337 2.1 C&IW in the Study Area......Page 338 2.2 Description of the C&IW Management Center Considered as a Case Study......Page 339 2.4 Sampling and Analytical Methods......Page 340 2.6 Compositional Analysis of SRF......Page 341 2.7 Estimation of Replacement of Natural Gas with SRF in Alternative Scenarios......Page 342 3.1 SRF Production and Quality......Page 343 3.2 Potential for SRF from New Waste Streams......Page 345 3.3 Potential Uses of SRF: Estimation of Natural Gas Replacements......Page 348 4 Discussion......Page 349 5 Conclusions......Page 351 References......Page 352 Broader Dimensions of Energy and Environmental Security......Page 354 Energy and Environment: Sustainable Development Goals and Global Policy Landscape......Page 355 1 Introduction......Page 356 2 Grand Energy and Environmental Challenges as Reflected in International Agreements......Page 357 3 Policy Approaches to Attaining the Energy Goals......Page 361 4 Analysis of Topics Related to Energy Challenges in Research and Media Publications......Page 363 5 Conclusions......Page 369 References......Page 370 Energy and Sustainable Development from Perspective of Energy Poverty......Page 375 1 Introduction......Page 376 2 Understanding the Relationship Between Energy Poverty and Sustainable Development......Page 380 3 Potential Possibilities for Eliminating Energy Poverty and Achieving Reliable, Sustainable and Affordable Energy in the World......Page 383 4 Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Within the Context of Sustainable Development: Case Studies from Various Countries......Page 385 5 Conclusion and Discussions......Page 388 References......Page 389 Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Sub-Saharan African Countries......Page 392 1 Introduction......Page 393 2.1 Search Strategy......Page 394 3.1 Impacts of Climate Change in SSA......Page 395 3.2 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation......Page 400 4 Conclusion and Recommendation......Page 405 References......Page 406 Energy-Drinking Water-Health Nexus in Developing Countries......Page 409 1 Introduction......Page 410 2.1 Increasing Demand for Potable Water......Page 415 2.2 Significance of Drinking Water......Page 418 2.3 Financial Burden of Water-Borne Diseases......Page 423 3.1 Water Desalination Technologies......Page 425 3.2 Energy Consumption and Environmental Footprint of Desalination Systems......Page 429 3.3 Carbon Footprint......Page 430 3.4 Economic Burdon of Desalination......Page 431 4 Energy and Health......Page 433 5 Interdependency of Energy, Drinking Water, and Health......Page 434 6.1 Roll of Government and Public......Page 435 6.3 Roll of Good Governance......Page 436 6.4 Cogeneration Systems......Page 437 6.5 Use of Renewable Energy for Desalination......Page 438 7 Conclusions......Page 440 References......Page 441 Updating Energy Security and Environmental Policy: Energy Security Theories Revisited......Page 444 1 Introduction......Page 445 2 An Overview of Energy Security Concepts......Page 446 3 Comparison of Theoretical Approaches to Energy Security......Page 452 4.1 Energy Technology Foresight Shaping New Security Agenda......Page 457 4.2 Application of Energy Security Concepts at National Level......Page 459 5 Conclusion and Policy Recommendations......Page 465 References......Page 466 1 Introduction......Page 472 2 Overview of Energy Systems Modelling......Page 473 2.2 Supply Side Approaches......Page 474 2.3 Demand Side Approaches......Page 476 2.4 Open Source Integrated Modelling......Page 481 3 Key Factors of Energy Systems Modelling......Page 482 3.2 The Discount Rate in Modelling......Page 483 4 Case Study: Power System of Tunisia......Page 484 4.1 Main Input Data......Page 485 4.2 Interpretation of Results......Page 486 5 Conclusions......Page 493 References......Page 495 1 Introduction......Page 498 2.1 Women, Climate Change and Agriculture......Page 500 2.2 Women, Climate Change and Loss of Biodiversity......Page 502 2.3 Women, Climate Change and Water Resources......Page 503 2.4 Women, Climate Change and Natural Disasters......Page 504 2.5 Women, Climate Change and Migration......Page 507 2.6 Women, Climate Change and Wars......Page 508 2.8 Women, Climate Change and Loss of Security......Page 509 2.9 Women, Climate Change, Social and Psychological Issues......Page 510 2.11 Women, Climate Change and World Economy......Page 511 2.12 Women, Climate Change and Pollution/Environmental Awareness......Page 512 2.13 Women, Climate Change, Health and Sanitation Issues......Page 514 3 Ecofeminism for Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change Effects on Women......Page 516 4 Conclusions......Page 518 References......Page 519 Carbon Capture for Sustainable Environment in Developing Countries......Page 521 1.1 Effect of Greenhouse Gases in Developing Countries......Page 522 1.2 Carbon Neutral Green Fuel......Page 523 2.1 Overview of Carbon Capture......Page 524 2.2 Carbon Capture Processes......Page 525 2.3 Carbon Capture Technologies......Page 527 3 Challenges for Carbon Capture for Clean and Green Environment......Page 532 4.2 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)......Page 533 4.3 Vacuum Swing Adsorption (VSA)......Page 534 4.5 Microwave Swing Adsorption (MSA)......Page 536 4.7 Electrical Potential Swing Desorption (EPSD)......Page 537 5 Summary of Regeneration Challenges......Page 538 References......Page 539 1 Introduction......Page 541 2.1 Gross Carbon Emissions......Page 542 2.2 Per Capita CO2 Emissions......Page 543 2.3 Sector-Wise Emissions......Page 544 4 Potential for Solar Energy in India......Page 545 5 Policies to Promote Solar Energy......Page 546 5.1 Solar Power—Ground Mounted Grid-Connected......Page 547 5.2 Solar Power—Rooftop Grid-Connected......Page 548 5.5 National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy......Page 550 6 Institutional Framework......Page 551 7 Operational Mechanisms......Page 553 7.2 Net-Metering for Rooftop Solar......Page 554 7.3 Feed-In-Tariff......Page 555 7.4 Benchmark Cost Including Cost of All Components and Maintenance......Page 556 7.5 Mandate Under Model Building By-Laws, 2016......Page 557 8 Grid Parity for Solar Energy......Page 558 9 Targets Achieved......Page 559 10.1 Reduced Transmission and Distribution (T&D) Losses......Page 561 10.3 Energy Security......Page 562 10.4 Challenges in Scaling-Up Solar Power Generation......Page 563 10.5 Conclusions......Page 564 References......Page 565 Bioenergy Production from Halophytes Crops for Sustainable Development......Page 567 1 Introduction......Page 568 3 Cultivation of Halophytes to Conserve Freshwater......Page 569 4 Utilization of Uncultivated Land with High Salinity......Page 570 5 Constructed Wetlands for Cultivation of Halophytes......Page 571 7 Ecology, Distribution and Classification of Halophytes......Page 572 9 Utilization of Halophytes......Page 574 11 Clean and Carbon Free Environment......Page 576 13 Thermochemical Conversion of Halophytes Biomass......Page 577 14 Challenges and Opportunities Associated with Halophytes to Produce Bioenergy......Page 579 15 Conclusions......Page 580 References......Page 581 Sustainable Energy: Case Study of Cameroon......Page 583 1 The Overall Energy Situation in Cameroon......Page 584 2.1 Hydro Energy Production and Distribution in Cameroon......Page 587 2.2 Micro Hydro Installations......Page 589 2.4 Problems Affecting the Use of Hydro Energy in Cameroon......Page 590 3.2 Case Studies of Some Isolated Decentralized Biomass Plants......Page 591 3.4 Environmental Problems Associated with the Use of Biomass......Page 592 4.1 Wind Distribution Per Region......Page 593 5.1 The General Solar Energy Potential......Page 594 5.2 Current Installed Capacity......Page 595 6.1 Survey of Possible Crops for Biofuel Production in Cameroon and Their Yields......Page 597 7.1 Emissions and Environmental Protection......Page 598 7.3 Analysis of the Energy Law in Cameroon......Page 599 7.4 Review of International Treaties Signed and Ratified by Cameroon on Energy and Environment Exploitation......Page 600 References......Page 601 1 Introduction......Page 604 2 Energy Security in Agriculture......Page 607 3 Overview of the Energy Sector in India......Page 608 4 Energy and Environmental Foot-Print of Agriculture......Page 611 4.2 Direct Energy......Page 612 4.3 Indirect Energy......Page 613 4.4 Environmental Impact of Agricultural Inefficiencies......Page 614 4.5 Energy Management in Agriculture......Page 615 5.2 Energy Equivalents of Inputs and Output......Page 617 5.3 Efficiency Estimation Using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)......Page 618 6 Results and Discussion......Page 620 7 Conclusion......Page 624 References......Page 625 Floating Photovoltaic System Technology—Prospects of Its Implementation in Central Asian, South Asian and South East Asian Region......Page 628 1 Introduction......Page 629 1.1 Components of Floating Photovoltaic System......Page 630 2 Case Studies of Presently Implemented FPVS in Different Parts of the World......Page 631 3 Technical Feasibility of FPVS Over Land-Based PV Systems......Page 634 3.1 Factors for Technical Feasibility of FPVS......Page 636 4 Economic Feasibility of FPVS......Page 639 5 Ecological Feasibility of FPVS......Page 643 6 Challenges for the Implementation of FPVS......Page 644 7 Recommendation of Implementation of FPVS in South East Asia, Central Asia and South Asian Countries and Others in the Region......Page 645 7.1 South East Asia......Page 646 7.2 Central Asia......Page 647 7.3 South Asia......Page 648 References......Page 651 1 Commonality of Challenges......Page 654 2 Energy and Environmental Security: A Balancing Act......Page 656 3 A Renewable Pathway......Page 657 4 Build Back Better......Page 658 5 Concluding Remarks......Page 661 References......Page 662