Human Growth and Development

__Human Growth and Development, Third Edition__ provides a comprehensive volume covering the biology of human growth and the genetic, endocrine, environmental, nutritional, and socio-economic factors that contribute towards its full expression. __Human Growth and Development__ continues to be a valuable resource for researchers, professors and graduate students across the interdisciplinary area of human development. For the new edition, updates are made to all fourteen of the "core chapters" of the book which form the essential reading for a comprehensive understanding of human growth and development. Additionally, new special topics are covered including the interpretation of recently found sub-adult fossils that expand our understanding of the evolution of human growth and a discussion of the early pattern of growth and development as the developmental origins of risk for non-communicable diseases of adulthood. __Human Growth and Development, Third Edition__ includes contributions from the well-known experts in the field and is the most reputable, comprehensive resource available. Front Cover Human Growth and Development Human Growth and Development Copyright Dedication Contents Contributors Acknowledgments Introduction Using this book The Lecturers Editors' Personal Statements Noël Cameron Thus was this particular volume conceived Lawrence Schell Coda References 1 - The pattern of human growth Introduction Historical background The distance curve of growth The velocity growth curve and growth spurts Other patterns of growth Growth versus maturity The control of growth Growth reference charts Canalization Catch-up growth Summary and conclusions References Suggested readings 2 - Prenatal and infant growth Introduction Periods of gestation Embryonic period (“embryogenesis”) Pre-implantation stage Implantation Embryonic development Fetal development Assessing growth during pregnancy Ultrasonography Assessing gestational age Assessing growth using fetal biometry Fetal weight charts Fetal weight standards Customized fetal weight charts Modeling fetal growth Factors affecting fetal growth The placenta Transfer and metabolism of nutrients and waste products Endocrine organ Maternal size Height Weight Parity Maternal age Gestational diabetes Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy Socioeconomic position (SEP) Smoking Ethnicity and geography Nutrition Birth Transition from utero to postnatal environment Measurements taken at birth Growth charts used at birth (UK) Infant growth Pattern of infant growth Features of infant growth Maternal size versus genetics Catch-up growth and canalization (types of catch-up growth) Types of catch-up growth Canalization The outcomes of catch-up growth: unpicking the inconsistencies Infancy as a nutrition dependent phase of growth Indicators of infant malnutrition Stunting Wasting Underweight References Suggested readings 3 - Child and juvenile growth Introduction Characterizing physical growth during childhood Linear growth Mid childhood growth spurt Body composition Sex differences in body composition Physiology of childhood growth Growth hormones Thyroid hormones Adipokines Adrenarche Environmental factors associated with childhood size Variability in child size Stunting and catch-up growth Overweight and obesity Childhood growth and long-term health Short- and long-term health consequences of undernutrition Child obesity, adiposity rebound and long-term outcomes Growth trajectories and health Summary References 4 - Adolescent growth Introduction The adolescent growth cycle Height Weight Body mass index (BMI) Head circumference Tempo of growth Growth modeling and biological parameters Individual versus average growth Sex differences in growth Summary Suggested reading References 5 - Puberty Introduction The neuroendocrinology of puberty Interactions of the endocrine and nervous systems The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis Pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion Reactivation of pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion Proximate regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion Upstream factors influencing pubertal timing Genetic factors Epigenetic factors Environmental factors Energetics Psychosocial stress Downstream consequences of pubertal activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis Downstream effects on the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis The pubertal growth spurt Secondary sexual characteristics Summary References Suggested readings 6 - Endocrine control of growth Overview of the endocrine system, hypothalamic-pituitary-gland axes, hormones relevant to growth Growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) Fetal, infancy, childhood, and adolescent endocrine controlled growth characteristics Growth disorders characteristics, diagnosis and treatment Growth hormone therapy Assessment of growth in clinical scenarios References 7 - Nutrition and growth Introduction Basic concepts Nutrition and diet Nutrients Measurement of food and energy intake Determination of requirements Energy requirements Protein requirements Protein-energy ratios Vitamin and mineral requirements Assessment of nutritional status during childhood and adolescence Nutrition and growth Energy demands of growth Maternal and fetal nutrition and fetal growth Infancy and breastfeeding Childhood and adolescence Malnutrition Supplementation studies Overnutrition Summary Annotated Bibliography Acknowledgment References Nutrition Textbooks 8 - The genetic epidemiology of growth and development Introduction Statistical genetic terms and concepts Relatedness of individuals Heritability Genetic and environmental correlations Applications of genetic and environmental correlations to longitudinal data Gene-by-environment interaction Gene-by-sex interaction Gene-by-age interaction Identifying genes influencing growth and development Population-based association studies Genome-wide association studies Quantitative trait linkage analysis Quantitative trait linkage and association Mendelian Randomization Study designs Twin studies Nuclear families Extended pedigrees Studies of the genetics of growth and development Population differences in growth and development Family studies of growth and development Birth weight Height Weight, circumferences, and skinfolds Longitudinal studies Maturation Summary References Suggested reading 9 - Social and economic effects on growth Introduction Two types of variation of anthropometric traits caused by social factors Social gradients in height of conscripts Social gradients in growth of school children Social gradients in menarcheal age Mode of action of social factors on biological features Are social gradients of height in the Polish population partly genetic? The role of inequality in society Concluding remarks References 10 - Environmental effects on growth Introduction Research design issues Temperature and climate Season High altitude hypoxia Prenatal growth Childhood and adolescence Changes in shape and proportion Pollutants Cigarette smoking Air pollution Organic compounds: PCBs, DDT/DDE, PBDE, phthalates Lead Radiation Stress Social and economic influences on postnatal human growth Immediate causes: infection and nutrition Underlying causes: household water, sanitation, hygiene and growth Basic causes: poverty, socio-economic status and parental education Distal determinants: structural, economic and socio-political environments Future actions to tackle adverse growth environments How do we interpret differences in growth related to environmental factors? Conclusion References Further reading and resources 11 - The measurement of human growth Introduction The context of measurement; screening, surveillance and monitoring VIMAR: validity, instrumentation, minimum unit of measurement, accuracy, reliability Frequency of measurement Measurements Stature (harpenden stadiometer, martin or GPS anthropometer, wall mounted or rigid stadiometer) Sitting-height (sitting-height table or martin or GPS anthropometer) Bi-acromial diameter (harpenden, martin, or GPS anthropometer) Bi-iliac diameter (harpenden, martin, or GPS anthropometer) Circumferences/girths Head circumference (tape measure) Arm circumference or mid-upper arm circumference (tape measure) Waist circumference or abdominal circumference (tape measure) Hip circumference (tape measure) Skinfolds (harpenden, holtain, or lange calipers) Triceps skinfold Biceps skinfold Subscapular skinfold Supra-iliac skinfold Weight (digital weighing scales or beam balance) Surface landmarks Acromion process (lateral border of the acromion) () Anterior superior iliac spine () Biceps brachii Distal end of the radius () External auditory meatus Femur epicondyles () Frankfurt Plane () Gastrocnemius Glabella () Gluteal fold Head of the radius () Humeral epicondyles () Iliac crest () Malleoli () Mastoid process () Mid-axillary line Mid-inguinal point (inguinal crease) Mid point of the arm Occiput () Olecranon () Patella () Pinna of the ear Radial styloid () Scapula () Sternum () Trapezius Triceps Trochanters () Ulna styloid () Umbilicus Vertex of the skull () References Suggested readings 12 - Assessment of maturation Introduction Initial considerations The concept of time Maturity indicators Maturational variation Sexual dimorphism Maturity and size Methods of assessment Secondary sexual development Breast development Genitalia development Pubic hair development Clinical evaluations Self-assessment of pubertal status Dental development Skeletal development Age at menarche Secondary sexual events in boys Hormonal maturity indicators Landmarks on the growth curve Summary References Suggested readings 13 - Modeling growth curves for epidemiology Finding the curve Auxological models Non-auxological models Individual or sample-average curves Multilevel growth curve models Key principles Between-individual differences Within-individual differences Distal outcomes Growth mixture models Key principles Estimation and replication Default and user-specified constraints Model development, selection, and reporting Epidemiological investigation Concluding remarks References 14 - Growth references and standards Introduction Purpose Growth and size Chart form Assessment Unconditional and conditional references Structure of chapter Defining the reference population Clinical or public health tool Reference or standard Drawing the sample Design: cross-sectional, longitudinal, mixed-longitudinal? Sample size Weighting by age, or extending the age range Sampling Collecting the data Select measurements Choose location and personnel Equipment and technique Cleaning the data Diagnostic plots: marginal and conditional Estimating distance centiles Age grouped or continuous Distributional assumptions Form of smoothing Available software Variants of the distance chart Puberty Repeated measures Visualizing the curves Centile growth charts LMS curves Multiple measurement SD score charts Charting velocity Unconditional velocity Conditional velocity Conditional references Designing and printing the chart When to replace Electronic growth charts Conclusions References Internet resources Special topics 15 - Evolution of human growth Introduction: evolution of human maturation Human growth and maturation in evolutionary perspective Anthropology: evolutionary approach Life history and stages of life Contrast in methods Fossil evidence Specific fossil sites Methods to assess tempo of maturation in hominin fossils Current methods and case studies of immature hominin fossils Concluding thoughts Summary Acknowledgments References 16 - Early environments, developmental plasticity, and chronic degenerative disease Introduction Developmental origins of health and disease: evidence and mechanisms Early environments, developmental biology and adult health Mechanisms of developmental programming Developmental plasticity as a means of adaptation Early life developmental plasticity and adaptation to ecological change Implications of developmental programming for social health disparities High risk scenario 1: when early life undernutrition is followed by adult weight gain High risk scenario 2: the social origins of health disparities related to race, class, and gender Conclusion References Suggested readings 17 - Physical activity and growth Definitions of physical activity/sedentary behavior Physical activity and health and wellbeing Physical activity guidelines Measurement of physical activity Self-report methods Device measures Correlates Physical activity and chronological age Growth, development and physical activity Does physical activity influence growth and biological maturation of a child? Does growth and biological maturation influence the physical activity of a child? Biological maturity and growth-related injury risk Emerging areas Bio-banding Physical activity interventions Conclusion References Suggestion for further reading and websites 18 - Biological models of human growth Introduction Human growth: building a body is a cellular job Growth in nature Saltation and stasis: how children grow A paradigm shift in growth models The emergence of the saltation and stasis model Measurement protocol Measurement error considerations Data analysis Mathematical modeling Saltatory growth timing Best practices The biology of saltatory growth: the model and the evidence Saltation and stasis: an integrated model of growth Summary References 19 - Body composition during growth and development Introduction Basic concepts Chemical maturation and the life cycle Body composition models Nutrition, adaptation and functional outcomes Tempo of growth Fatness versus fat patterning Heredity versus environment Methods Anthropometry Densitometric methods Isotope dilution methods Bioelectrical methods Potassium – 40 Absorptiometry methods Neutron activation Computerized axial tomography Magnetic resonance methods Ultrasound methods Body composition and growth Infancy Childhood Adolescence Adulthood and senescence Body composition in health and disease Body composition as an indicator of nutritional status Energy undernutrition, body composition and health outcomes The first 1000 days of life and the dual burden of malnutrition Prevalence and health consequences of obesity and altered body composition Fat distribution as a correlate of diseases Physical activity and body composition Summary References Additional reading Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z Back Cover