Learning and Memory : Basic Principles, Processes, and Procedures

Learning and Memory provides a balanced review of the core methods and the latest research on animal learning and human memory. Topical coverage ranges from the basic and central processes of learning, including classical and instrumental conditioning and encoding and storage in long-term memory, to topics not traditionally covered, such as spatial learning, motor skills, and implicit memory. The general rules of learning are reviewed along with the exceptions, limitations, and best applications of these rules. Alternative approaches to learning and memory, including cognitive, neuroscientific, functional, and behavioral, are also discussed. Individual differences in age, gender, learning abilities, and social and cultural background are explored throughout the text and presented in a dedicated chapter. The relevance of basic principles is highlighted throughout the text with everyday examples that ignite reader interest in addition to more traditional examples from human and animal laboratory studies. Research examples are drawn from education, neuropsychology, psychiatry, nursing, and ecological (or everyday) memory. Each chapter begins with an outline and concludes with a detailed summary. Applications and extensions are showcased in text boxes as well as in distinct applications sections in every chapter, and review and recapitulation sections are interspersed throughout the chapters. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Brief Contents Table of Contents Preface Acknowledgments Chapter 1: Introduction The Origins of the Study of Learning Epistemology Evolution Contemporary Influences The Definition of Learning Some Caveats The Learning/Performance Distinction Learning: Recapitulation The Relationship Between the Terms Learning and Memory The Science of Learning and Memory Basic Research Applied Research Common Sense and Common Knowledge Why Animals? Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Learning The Functional Approach The Behavioral Approach The Cognitive Approach The Neuroscience Approach Applications Studying: Recommendations from Experts Summary The Origins of the Study of Learning The Definition of Learning The Learning/Performance Distinction The Relationship between the Terms Learning and Memory The Science of Learning and Memory Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Learning Applications Chapter 2: Habituation and Other Forms of Stimulus Learning What Is a Stimulus? The Orienting Response Habituation Methods of Studying Habituation Parametric Features of Habituation Frequency of Repetition Spontaneous Recovery Effects of Repeated Habituations Short-Term Habituation and Long-Term Habituation Spacing of Stimulations Dishabituation Stimulus Specificity of Habituation Summary of the Parametric Features of Habituation Explanations of Habituation Nonlearning Explanations Neuroscience Theory Aplysia: A Model System Evolution Cognitive Theories Explanations of Habituation: Summary Sensitization Perceptual Learning Factors Affecting Perceptual Learning Presenting Contrasting Stimuli Transfer from Easy to Difficult Stimuli Attention and Feedback Other Effects of Stimulus Exposure Preference for Familiar Stimuli Recapitulation: The Effects of Repeated Stimulus Presentation Applications Exposure Therapy for Fear Needle Fear Summary What Is a Stimulus? The Orienting Response Habituation Parametric Features of Habituation Explanations of Habituation Sensitization Perceptual Learning Factors Affecting Perceptual Learning Other Effects of Stimulus Exposure Applications Exposure Therapy for Fear Chapter 3: Classical Conditioning The Definition of Classical Conditioning Historical Note Methods of Studying Classical Conditioning Representative Procedures Eyeblink Conditioning Skin Conductance Response Taste Aversion Learning Magazine Approach Conditioning Summary of the Methods of Conditioning What Stimuli Can Serve as CSs? What Stimuli Can Serve as USs? Basic Phenomena of Conditioning Acquisition Control Procedures Extinction Generalization Discrimination Second-Order Conditioning The Role of Contiguity Summary of the Basic Phenomena Other Factors Affecting Conditioning Compound CSs The Blocking Effect Prediction Error Rescorla-Wagner Model CS–US Relevance Conditioned Inhibition What Is Learned in Classical Conditioning? So, What Is Learned in Pavlovian Conditioning? Evolutionary/Adaptive Approach to Conditioning Learning in the Brain The Role of Awareness in Conditioning Extensions of Conditioning Evaluative Conditioning Conditioning with Drug USs and the Development of Tolerance Applications of Conditioning The Conditioning Theory of Phobias Overview of the Conditioning Theory of Phobias Extinction as Therapy Summary The Definition of Classical Conditioning Methods of Studying Classical Conditioning Basic Phenomena of Conditioning The Role of Contiguity Other Factors Affecting Conditioning What Is Learned in Classical Conditioning? Extensions of Conditioning Applications of Conditioning Chapter 4: Instrumental Conditioning: Reward Definition and History Thorndike and Trial-and-Error Learning Skinner and Operant Learning Elements of Instrumental Conditioning Methods of Study Positive Reinforcement Reinforcement Variables Affecting Acquisition Amount of Reinforcement Drive Schedules of Reinforcement Delay of Reinforcement Secondary Reinforcement Social Reinforcement Summary of Reinforcement Variables Theories of Reinforcement Drive Reduction Incentive Motivation The Neural Basis of Reinforcement Brain Stimulation Dopamine Reinforcers as Behaviors Reinforcers as Strengtheners Reinforcers as Information So, What Is Reinforcement? Is Reinforcement Necessary for Learning? Awareness in Human Instrumental Learning Criticisms of the Use of Reinforcement Response Learning Shaping Limitations of Response Learning Discriminative Stimulus Control Generalization and Discrimination Summary of Response Learning and Stimulus Learning What Is Learned in Instrumental Conditioning? Response–Reinforcer Learning Stimulus–Response Learning Stimulus–Reinforcer Learning What Is Learned? Stimulus–Response–Reinforcer Applications Habits Habit Slips Breaking Habits Behavior Modification Summary Positive Reinforcement Theories of Reinforcement Response Learning Discriminative Stimulus Control What Is Learned in Instrumental Conditioning? Applications Chapter 5: Instrumental Conditioning: Nonreward, Punishment, and Avoidance Defining the Contingencies: Nonreward, Punishment, and Avoidance Extinction The Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect Extinction: An Overview Punishment When Does Punishment Work? Response-Contingent Punishment Intensity Delay of Punishment Schedule of Punishment Incompatible Responses Concurrent Reinforcement Providing a Verbal Rationale Individual Differences Side Effects of Punishment Conditioned Fear and Avoidance Aggression Paradoxical Rewarding Effects of Punishment Punishment or Nonreward? Spanking Should Punishment Be Used? Persistence Avoidance Learning Theories of Avoidance Learning Conditioning Theory Cognitive Theory The Functional Approach Summary of Avoidance Learning Approach–Avoidance Conflict Approach or Avoidance as a Coping Response Prediction, Control, and Helplessness Extensions of the Learned-Helplessness Concept Depression Causal Attribution Theory Physical Health Summary of Learned Helplessness Neuroscience and Aversive Learning The Amygdala and Aversive Learning Avoidance Conditioning Social Learning Applications of Aversive-Learning Contingencies Pet Containment Systems Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Summary Nonreward Punishment Persistence Avoidance Learning Prediction, Control, and Helplessness Neuroscience and Aversive Learning Applications Chapter 6: Verbal Learning The Ebbinghaus Legacy Serial Learning Serial Position The Ubiquitous Serial-Position Curve Remote Associations Serial Learning: A Summary Paired-Associate Learning Analysis of Paired-Associate Learning Stimulus Discrimination Response Learning Stimulus–Response Associating Direction of Associations Paired-Associate Learning: A Summary Free Recall Serial-Position Effects Rehearsal Organization Organization in Animal Memory? Free Recall: A Summary Recognition Memory Recognition: Remembering Versus Knowing Accessible Memories Recall Versus Recognition Versus Relearning Implicit Learning Relationships Among the Verbal-Learning Tasks Statistical Learning Propositional Learning Statistical Language Learning Fast Mapping Applications Assessment of Cognitive Impairment Mnemonics Verbal Mnemonics Imagery Mnemonics Analysis of Imagery Mnemonics Summary Serial Learning Paired-Associate Learning Free Recall Recognition Memory Accessible Memories Statistical Learning Applications Mnemonics Chapter 7: Human Memory Conceptual Approaches Partitioning Memory Components of Memory Approach Dual-Store Theory: Short-Term and Long-Term Memories Divisions of Long-Term Memory: Episodic and Semantic Divisions of Long-Term Memory: Procedural Learning and Priming Explicit versus Implicit Procedural Learning Priming Dissociating Priming and Explicit Memory The Organization of Long-Term Memory Stages of Memory Approach Dissociating Stages Experimental Dissociations Neuropsychological Dissociations Processing Approaches to Memory Depth of Processing Summary Artificial Neural Networks Modeling Configural Learning Connectionism and the Other Approaches Applications The Study of Abnormal Memory: Amnesia Classification of Amnesias Types of Amnesias Amnesic Syndrome Korsakoff’s Disease Electroconvulsive Shock Functional Amnesia Everyday Forgetting and the Models of Memory Summary Partitioning Memory Components of Memory Approach Stages of Memory Processing Approaches Artificial Neural Network Models Applications Chapter 8: Short-Term Memory Some History Short-Term Memory Tasks The Brown–Peterson Distractor Task Memory Span Characteristics of Verbal Short-Term Memory Acoustic Encoding Limited Capacity Limited Duration Forgetting: Short-Term Memory Is Sensitive to Disruption Transfer to Long-Term Memory Control Processes Summary of the Features of Short-Term Memory Other Modalities of Short-Term Memory Visual Short-Term Memory Spatial Short-Term Memory Short-Term Memory for Actions Short-Term Memory for Odors Short-Term Memory in the Hearing Impaired Working Memory Theoretical Overview of Working Memory The Phonological Loop The Visuospatial Sketchpad The Central Executive The Episodic Buffer Measuring Working Memory Executive Functions Working Memory and Consciousness? Working Memory and Culture Individual Differences in Working Memory Aging and Working Memory Dementia and Working Memory Anxiety and Working Memory Multitasking Is There Really a Separate Short-Term Memory? A Single-Memory Approach? Neuropsychological Dissociations of Two-Memory Systems One Memory or Several? Applications Comprehending and Using Language Problem Solving Summary Short-Term Memory Tasks Characteristics of STM Working Memory Is There Really a Separate Short-Term Memory? Applications Chapter 9: Encoding Separating Encoding from Retrieval Some Basic Variables in Encoding Elaborative Rehearsal What Exactly Is Elaborative Processing? Limitations of Elaborative Processing Conclusions about Elaboration Imagery and Memory for Pictures Meaningfulness Presentation Variables Testing Effects Isolation Effects Spacing Effects Hypothesis 1: Attention-Deficit Hypothesis 2: Encoding Variability Is There an Optimal Spacing Interval? Conclusions about Spacing Learner Variables Incidental Versus Intentional Learning Other Incidental Encoding Operations Incentives Arousal Targeted Memory Reactivation Stimulant Drugs Circadian Rhythms and Learning Some Conclusions about Arousal Emotions and Encoding How Do Emotions Affect Memory? Flashbulb Memories Eyewitness Memory and Emotional Arousal Conclusions about Emotions and Memory Schemas Metamemory Encoding: Summing Up Applications Academic Learning and Encoding Elaboration Meaningfulness Self-Efficacy Circadian Rhythms Summary Some Basic Variables in Encoding Presentation Variables Learner Variables Schemas Metamemory Applications Academic Learning and Encoding Chapter 10: Storage and Retrieval Storage Long-Term Memory for Naturalistically Learned Material Fifty Years of Memories for High School Classmates Remembering Knowledge Learned in School Memory for TV Shows Memory for Public Events Long-Term Retention in Animals The Nature of Storage Psychological Models of Semantic Memory Neuropsychological Dissociations Biological Substrates Consolidation Theory Reconsolidation Retrieval Retrieval from Episodic Memory Distinctiveness Retrieval Practice What Makes a Good Retrieval Cue? Associations Encoding Specificity Contextual Learning State-Dependent Learning Mood-Dependent Recall Limitations of Encoding–Retrieval Paradigm Effects Emotional Arousal and Retrieval Prospective Memory Metamemory and Partial Retrieval Feeling of Knowing False Retrieval False Memory Generality of False Memory Source Memory Whose Memory Is It? Imagination Inflation Debunking Misinformation The Effect of Postevent Information Recovered Memory Retrieval Versus Reconstruction Applications Strategies for Searching Memory Context-Specific Learning Reconsolidation Summary Long-Term Memory The Nature of Storage Retrieval Metamemory and Partial Retrieval False Retrieval Effect of Postevent Information Recovered Memory Retrieval Versus Reconstruction Applications Chapter 11: Spatial, Motor-Skills, and Implicit Learning Spatial Learning Rats, Mazes, and Psychology Routes Versus Cognitive Maps Place Versus Response Studies The Radial Maze Morris Water Maze Maze Learning and the Brain Automatic Spatial Responding Landmarks Schemas in Spatial Memory Distortion in Cognitive Maps Organization in Spatial Memory The Development of Spatial Memory in Children Motor-Skills Learning Practice Amount of Practice Schedules of Practice Practice-Independent Learning Knowledge of Results Delayed KR Metacognition in Motor Skills Long-Term Retention of Skills Implicit Learning Some Implicit-Learning Tasks Is Implicit Learning Unaware Learning? Dissociating Categories of Implicit Learning Expertise From Declarative to Procedural Applications Implicit Learning Spatial Memory Sense of Direction Improved Building Design Developing Memory Skill Summary Spatial Learning Motor-Skills Learning Implicit Learning Expertise Applications Chapter 12: Individual Differences in Learning and Memory The Nature of Nurture: The Genetics of Learning Ability Animal Studies The Biological Costs of Learning Ability Human Studies Age Differences in Learning and Memory Conditioning Conditioning in Infants Aging and Conditioning The Generality of Conditioning Memory Development in Children Encoding Differences Capacity Knowledge Strategies Metamemory Autobiographical Memory Childhood Amnesia So, What Is It That Develops? Aging and Memory Capacity Metamemory Aging and Self-Efficacy Noncognitive Sources of Decline Summary of Age and Memory Exceptional Memory: The Mnemonists Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory Gender and Cognitive Abilities Learning Styles The Visualizer–Verbalizer Dimension Kolb Sternberg Learning Styles? Self-Control Social and Cultural Differences Epic Memories Experimental Studies Contemporary Cultural Psychology Cultural Studies of Earliest Memories Summary The Genetics of Learning Ability Age Differences in Learning and Memory Exceptional Memory Gender and Cognitive Abilities Learning Styles Social and Cultural Differences Glossary References Author Index Subject Index