Materials for Hydrogen Production, Conversion, and Storage

MATERIALS FOR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION, CONVERSION, AND STORAGE Edited by one of the most well-respected and prolific engineers in the world and his team, this book provides a comprehensive overview of hydrogen production, conversion, and storage, offering the scientific literature a comprehensive coverage of this important fuel. Continually growing environmental concerns are driving every, or almost every, country on the planet towards cleaner and greener energy production. This ultimately leaves no option other than using hydrogen as a fuel that has almost no adverse environmental impact. But hydrogen poses several hazards in terms of human safety as its mixture of air is prone to potential detonations and fires. In addition, the permeability of cryogenic storage can induce frostbite as it leaks through metal pipes. In short, there are many challenges at every step to strive for emission-free fuel. In addition to these challenges, there are many emerging technologies in this area. For example, as the density of hydrogen is very low, efficient methods are being developed and engineered to store it in small volumes. This groundbreaking new volume describes the production of hydrogen from various sources along with the protagonist materials involved. Further, the extensive and novel materials involved in conversion technologies are discussed. Also covered here are the details of the storage materials of hydrogen for both physical and chemical systems. Both renewal and non-renewal sources are examined as feedstocks for the production of hydrogen. The non-renewal feedstocks, mainly petroleum, are the major contributor to date but there is a future perspective in a renewal source comprising mainly of water splitting via electrolysis, radiolysis, thermolysis, photocatalytic water splitting, and biohydrogen routes. Whether for the student, veteran engineer, new hire, or other industry professionals, this is a must-have for any library. Cover Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface Chapter 1 Transition Metal Oxides in Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Processes Utilizing Transition Metal Oxides 1.2.1 Photocatalysis 1.2.2 Photoelectrocatalysis 1.2.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting 1.3 Transition Metal Oxides in Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Processes 1.3.1 Photocatalysis and Photoelectrocatalysis 1.3.1.1 TiO2 1.3.1.2 α-Fe2O3 1.3.1.3 CuO/Cu2O 1.3.2 Thermochemical Water Splitting 1.3.2.1 Fe3O4/FeO Redox Pair 1.3.2.2 CeO2/Ce2O3 and CeO/CeO2-ä Redox Pairs 1.3.2.3 ZnO/Zn Redox Pair 1.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References Chapter 2 Catalytic Conversion Involving Hydrogen from Lignin List of Abbreviations 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Background of Bio-Refinery and Lignin 2.1.2 Lignin as an Alternate Source of Energy 2.1.3 Lignin Isolation Process 2.2 Catalytic Conversion of Lignin 2.2.1 Lignin Reductive Depolymerization into Aromatic Monomers 2.2.2 Catalytic Hydrodeoxydation (HDO) of Lignin 2.2.3 Hydrodeoxydation (HDO) of Lignin-Derived-Bio-Oil Summary and Outlook References Chapter 3 Solar–Hydrogen Coupling Hybrid Systems for Green Energy 3.1 Concept of Green Sources and Green Storage 3.2 Coupling of Green to Green 3.3 Solar Energy–Hydrogen System 3.3.1 Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Production 3.3.1.1 PEC Materials 3.3.1.2 Photoelectrochemical Systems 3.3.2 Electrochemical Hydrogen Production 3.3.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Electrolysis Cell (PEMEC) 3.3.2.2 Alkaline Electrolysis Cell (AEC) 3.3.2.3 Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC) 3.3.3 Fuel Cell 3.3.4 Photovoltaic 3.4 Thermochemical Systems 3.5 Photobiological Hydrogen Production 3.6 Conclusion References Chapter 4 Green Sources to Green Storage on Solar–Hydrogen Coupling 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Hybrid System 4.2 Concentrated Solar Thermal H2 Production 4.3 Thermochemical Aqua Splitting Technology for Solar–H2 Generation 4.4 Solar to Hydrogen Through Decarbonization of Fossil Fuels 4.4.1 Solar Cracking 4.5 Solar Thermal-Based Hydrogen Generation Through Electrolysis 4.6 Photovoltaics-Based Hydrogen Production 4.7 Conclusion References Chapter 5 Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Parameters to Evaluate Efficient HER Catalysts 5.2.1 Overpotential (o.p) 5.2.2 Tafel Plot 5.2.3 Stability 5.2.4 Faradaic Efficiency and Turnover Frequency 5.2.5 Hydrogen Bonding Energy (HBE) 5.3 Categories of HER Catalysts 5.3.1 Noble Metal-Based Catalysts 5.3.2 Non-Noble Metal-Based Catalysts 5.3.3 Metal-Free 2D Nanomaterials 5.3.4 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides 5.3.5 Transition Metal Oxides and Hydroxides 5.3.6 Transition Metal Phosphides 5.3.7 MXenes (Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides) Conclusion References Chapter 6 Recent Progress on Metal Catalysts for Electrochemical Hydrogen Evolution 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Type of Water Electrolysis Technologies 6.1.1.1 Alkaline Electrolysis (AE) 6.1.1.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis (PEME) 6.1.1.3 Solid Oxide Electrolysis (SOE) 6.2 Mechanism of Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) 6.2.1 Performance Evaluation of Catalyst 6.3 Various Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) 6.3.1 Noble Metal Catalysts for HER 6.3.1.1 Platinum-Based Catalysts 6.3.1.2 Palladium Based Catalysts 6.3.1.3 Ruthenium Based Catalysts 6.3.2 Non-Noble Metal Catalysts 6.3.2.1 Transition Metal Phosphides (TMP) 6.3.2.2 Transition Metal Chalcogenides 6.3.2.3 Transition Metal Carbides (TMC) 6.4 Conclusion and Future Aspects References Chapter 7 Dark Fermentation and Principal Routes to Produce Hydrogen 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Biohydrogen Production from Organic Waste 7.2.1 Crude Glycerol 7.2.1.1 Dark Fermentation of Crude Glycerol to Biohydrogen and Bio Products 7.2.2 Dairy Waste 7.2.2.1 Dark Fermentation of Dairy Waste to Biohydrogen and Bioproducts 7.2.3 Fruit Waste 7.2.3.1 Dark Fermentation of Fruit Waste to Hydrogen and Bioproducts 7.3 Anaerobic Systems 7.3.1 Continuous Multiple Tube Reactor 7.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives Acknowledgements References Chapter 8 Catalysts for Electrochemical Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Water Splitting and Their Products 8.3 Different Methods Used for Water Splitting 8.3.1 Setup for Water Splitting Systems at a Basic Level 8.3.2 Photocatalysis 8.3.3 Electrolysis 8.4 Principles of PEC and Photocatalytic H2 Generation 8.5 Electrochemical Process for Water Splitting Application 8.5.1 Water Splitting Through Electrochemistry 8.6 Different Materials Used in Water Splitting 8.6.1 Water Oxidation (OER) Materials 8.6.2 Developing Materials for Hydrogen Synthesis 8.6.3 Material Stability for Water Splitting 8.7 Mechanism of Electrochemical Catalysis in Water Splitting and Hydrogen Production 8.7.1 Electrochemical Water Splitting with Cheap Metal-Based Catalysts 8.7.2 Catalysts with Only One Atom 8.7.3 Electrochemical Water Splitting Using Low-Cost Metal-Free Catalysts 8.8 Water Splitting and Hydrogen Production Materials Used in Electrochemical Catalysis 8.8.1 Metal and Alloys 8.8.2 Metal Oxides/Hydroxides and Chalogenides 8.8.3 Metal Carbides, Borides, Nitrides, and Phosphides 8.9 Uses of Hydrogen Produced from Water Splitting 8.9.1 Water Splitting Generates Hydrogen Energy 8.9.2 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Water Splitting 8.9.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting 8.9.4 Biological Water Splitting 8.9.5 Fermentation 8.9.6 Biomass and Waste Conversions 8.9.7 Solar Thermal Water Splitting 8.9.8 Renewable Electrolysis 8.9.9 Hydrogen Dispenser Hose Reliability 8.10 Conclusion References Chapter 9 Challenges and Mitigation Strategies Related to Biohydrogen Production 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Limitation and Mitigation Approaches of Biohydrogen Production 9.2.1 Physical Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches 9.2.1.1 Operating Temperature Issue and Its Control 9.2.1.2 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Optimization 9.2.1.3 High Hydrogen Partial Pressure – Implication and Overcoming the Issue 9.2.1.4 Membrane Fouling Issues and Solutions 9.2.2 Biological Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches 9.2.2.1 Start-Up Issue and Improvement Through Bioaugmentation 9.2.2.2 Biomass Washout Issue and Solution Through Cell Immobilization 9.2.3 Chemical Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches 9.2.3.1 pH Variation and Its Regulation 9.2.3.2 Limiting Nutrient Loading and Optimization 9.2.3.3 Inhibitor Secretion and Its Control 9.2.3.4 Byproduct Formation and Its Exploitation 9.2.4 Economic Issues and Ways to Optimize Cost 9.3 Conclusion and Future Direction Acknowledgements References Chapter 10 Continuous Production of Clean Hydrogen from Wastewater by Microbial Usage 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Wastewater for Biohydrogen Production 10.3 Photofermentation 10.3.1 Continuous Photofermentation 10.3.2 Factors Affecting Photofermentation Hydrogen Production 10.3.2.1 Inoculum Condition and Substrate Concentration 10.3.2.2 Carbon and Nitrogen Source 10.3.2.3 Temperature 10.3.2.4 pH 10.3.2.5 Light Intensity 10.3.2.6 Immobilization 10.4 Dark Fermentation 10.4.1 Continuous Dark Fermentation 10.4.2 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Production in Continuous Dark Fermentation 10.4.2.1 Start-Up Time 10.4.2.2 Organic Loading Rate 10.4.2.3 Hydraulic Retention Time 10.4.2.4 Temperature 10.4.2.5 pH 10.4.2.6 Immobilization 10.5 Microbial Electrolysis Cell 10.5.1 Mechanism of Microbial Electrolysis Cell 10.5.2 Wastewater Treatment and Hydrogen Production 10.5.3 Factors Affecting Microbial Electrolysis Cell Performance 10.5.3.1 Inoculum 10.5.3.2 pH 10.5.3.3 Temperature 10.5.3.4 Hydraulic Retention Time 10.5.3.5 Applied Voltage 10.6 Conclusions References Chapter 11 Conversion Techniques for Hydrogen Production and Recovery Using Membrane Separation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Conversion Technique for Hydrogen Production 11.2.1 Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation via Particulate System 11.2.2 Photoelectrochemical Cell (PEC) 11.2.3 Photovoltaic-Photoelectrochemical Cell (PV-PEC) 11.2.4 Electrolysis 11.3 Hydrogen Recovery Using Membrane Separation (H2/O2 Membrane Separation) 11.3.1 Polymeric Membranes 11.3.2 Porous Membranes 11.3.3 Dense Metal Membranes 11.3.4 Ion-Conductive Membranes 11.4 Conclusion Acknowledgements References Chapter 12 Geothermal Energy-Driven Hydrogen Production Systems Abbreviations 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Hydrogen – A Green Fuel and an Energy Carrier 12.3 Production of Hydrogen 12.3.1 Fossil Fuel-Based 12.3.2 Non-Fossil Fuel-Based 12.4 Geothermal Energy 12.4.1 Introductory View 12.4.2 Types and Occurrences 12.5 Hydrogen Production From Geothermal Energy 12.5.1 Hydrogen Production Systems 12.5.2 Working Fluids 12.5.3 Assimilation of Solar and Geothermal Energy 12.5.4 Chlor-Alkali Cell and Abatement of Mercury and Hydrogen Sulfide (AMIS) Unit 12.5.5 Hydrogen Liquefaction 12.5.6 Hydrogen Storage 12.6 Economics of Hydrogen Production 12.6.1 A General Overview 12.6.2 Economy of Hydrogen Yield Using Geothermal Energy 12.7 Environmental Impressions of Geothermal Energy-Driven Hydrogen Yield 12.8 Conclusions References Chapter 13 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis by Graphitic Carbon Nitride for Effective Hydrogen Production 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Typical Heterogeneous Photocatalysis Mechanism 13.1.2 Necessity of the Photocatalytic Water Splitting 13.2 g-C3N4-Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting 13.2.1 Influence of the g-C3N4 Morphology on Photocatalytic Water Splitting 13.2.1a g-C3N4 Thin Nanosheets-Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting 13.2.1b Porous g-C3N4-Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting 13.2.1c Crystalline g-C3N4-Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting 13.2.2 Metal Doped Photocatalytic Water Splitting 13.2.3 Semiconductor/g-C3N4 Heterojunction for Photocatalytic Water Splitting 13.3 Future Remarks and Conclusion References Chapter 14 Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-CN) for Sustainable Hydrogen Production 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Various Methods for Hydrogen Production 14.3 Production of Hydrogen from Fossil Fuels 14.3.1 Steam Reforming 14.3.2 Gasification 14.4 Hydrogen Production from Nuclear Energy 14.4.1 Water Splitting by Thermochemistry 14.5 Hydrogen Production from Renewable Energies 14.5.1 Electrolysis 14.5.2 Photovoltaic Solar 14.5.3 Wind Method for Producing Hydrogen 14.5.4 Biomass Gasification Use for Hydrogen Production 14.5.5 Agricultural or Food-Processing Waste that Contains Starch and Cellulose 14.6 Preparation of g-C3N4 Materials 14.6.1 Sol-Gel Method for Making Graphitic Carbon Nitride 14.6.2 Hard and Soft-Template Method 14.6.3 Template-Free Method for Making Graphitic Carbon Nitride 14.7 Properties of g-C3N4 Materials 14.7.1 Stability 14.7.1.1 Thermal Stability 14.7.1.2 Chemical Stability 14.7.1.3 Electrochemical Properties 14.8 The Advantages of Sustainable Hydrogen Production and Their Applications 14.8.1 Hydrogen Applications 14.9 Hydro Processing in Petroleum Refineries and Their Usage 14.9.1 Hydrocracking 14.9.2 Hydrofining 14.9.3 Ammonia Synthesis 14.9.4 Synthesis of Methanol 14.9.5 Electricity Generation from Hydrogen 14.9.6 Applications for Green Hydrogen 14.9.7 Replacing Existing Hydrogen 14.9.8 Heating 14.9.9 Energy Storage 14.9.10 Alternative Fuels 14.9.11 Fuel-Cell Vehicles 14.10 Conclusion References Chapter 15 Hydrogen Production from Anaerobic Digestion 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Basic Overview of Anaerobic Digestion 15.3 How to Obtain Hydrogen from Anaerobic Digestion 15.3.1 Single-Stage Reactor 15.3.2 Two-Stage Reactor 15.3.3 Feedstock and Resulting Hydrogen 15.4 Challenges and Mitigation Strategies in Biohydrogen Production 15.4.1 Combating Microbial Competition 15.4.2 Enhancing Biohydrogen Production Yield by Technical and Operational Adjustments 15.4.3 Minimizing Inhibition by Byproducts from Pretreatments 15.4.4 Minimizing Inhibition by Metal Ions 15.4.5 Minimizing In-Process Inhibition 15.4.5.1 Volatile Fatty Acids and Alcohols 15.4.5.2 Ammonia 15.4.5.3 Hydrogen 15.5 Practicality of Technologies at Industrial Scale 15.6 Conclusion Acknowledgements References Chapter 16 Impact of Treatment Strategies on Biohydrogen Production from Waste-Activated Sludge Fermentation 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Methods of Production of Hydrogen Using WAS 16.2.1 Dark Fermentation 16.2.2 Photofermentation 16.2.3 Microbial Electrolysis Cell 16.3 Physical Treatment Methods 16.4 Chemical Treatment Methods 16.5 Conclusions References Chapter 17 Microbial Production of Biohydrogen (BioH2) from Waste-Activated Sludge: Processes, Challenges, and Future Approaches 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Hydrogen and Waste-Activated Sludge 17.2.1 Hydrogen 17.2.2 Waste-Activated Sludge 17.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen Production 17.3.1 H2 Production by Dark Fermentation Process 17.3.2 H2 Production by Photofermentation Process 17.3.3 Using Microbial Electrolysis Cell 17.4 H2 Production by Microalgae Using Waste 17.4.1 Bottlenecks of H2 Production 17.4.2 Key Factors Influencing H2 Production 17.5 Recent Endeavors to Enhance H2 Production 17.5.1 Recent Advancements in Dark Fermentation 17.5.2 Recent Advances in Photofermentation 17.5.3 Recent Advances in Microbial Electrolysis Cell 17.6 Future Approaches 17.7 Conclusion References Chapter 18 Perovskite Materials for Hydrogen Production 18.1 Current Problems of Technology for Hydrogen Production 18.2 Principle of Perovskite Materials 18.2.1 Oxide Perovskite 18.2.1.1 Titanate-Based Oxide Perovskite (ATiO3) 18.2.1.2 Tantalate-Based Oxide Perovskite (ATaO3) 18.2.1.3 Niobate-Based Oxide Perovskite 18.2.2 Halide Perovskite 18.2.2.1 Conventional Halide Perovskite 18.2.2.2 Lead-Free Halide Perovskites 18.3 Synthesis Process for Perovskite Materials 18.3.1 Microwaves 18.3.2 Sol-Gel 18.3.3 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal 18.3.4 Precipitation 18.3.5 Hot-Injection 18.4 Hydrogen Production from Solar Water Splitting 18.4.1 Photocatalytic System 18.4.2 Photoelectrochemical System 18.4.3 Photovoltaic–Electrocatalytic System 18.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Chapter 19 Progress on Ni-Based as Co-Catalysts for Water Splitting 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 Thermodynamic Aspects of Hydrogen Production 19.1.2 Different Processes for the Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution by Water Splitting 19.1.3 Photocatalyst 19.1.3.1 Homogeneous Photocatalysis 19.1.3.2 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis 19.2 Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation System 19.2.1 Electron Donor and Electrolyte/Sacrificial Reagent 19.2.2 Loading of Co-Catalyst 19.2.3 Photocatalytic Activity Efficiency 19.3 Semiconductor Materials 19.3.1 Oxide-Based Semiconductor and Their Composites 19.3.2 Non-Oxide-Based Semiconductor and Their Composites 19.3.3 Polymer/Carbon Dots/Graphene-Based and Carbon Nitride-Based Photocatalyst and Their Composites 19.4 State of Art for the Nickel Used as Photocatalyst 19.5 Progress of Ni-Based Photocatalyst for Hydrogen Evolution 19.5.1 Metallic Form of Ni Used as Co-Catalyst 19.5.2 Ni-Based Oxide and Hydroxide Used as Co-Catalyst for Hydrogen Production 19.5.3 Ni-Based Sulfides Used as Co-Catalyst and Photocatalyst 19.5.4 Ni-Based Phosphides Used as Co-Catalyst Towards Hydrogen Production 19.5.5 Ni-Based Complex Act as Co-Catalyst for Hydrogen Production 19.5.6 Other Ni-Based Co-Catalyst for Hydrogen Production 19.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective Author Declaration Acknowledgment References Chapter 20 Use of Waste-Activated Sludge for the Production of Hydrogen 20.1 Introduction 20.2 WAS to Hydrogen Production 20.2.1 Biohydrogen Production 20.2.1.1 Dark Fermentation 20.2.1.2 Photofermentation 20.2.1.3 Microbial Electrolysis Cell 20.2.2 Thermochemical Hydrogen Production 20.2.2.1 Pyrolysis 20.2.2.2 Gasification 20.2.2.3 Super Critical Water Gasification 20.3 Conclusion Remarks References Chapter 21 Current Trends in the Potential Use of the Metal-Organic Framework for Hydrogen Storage 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Structure of MOFs 21.3 Mechanism of H2 Storage by MOFs 21.4 Strategies to Modify the Structure of MOFs for Enhanced H2 Storage 21.4.1 Tuning the Surface Area, Pore Size, and Volume of MOFs 21.4.2 Enhancement in Unsaturated Open Metal Sites 21.4.3 MOFs with Interpenetration 21.4.4 Linker Functionalization of MOFs 21.4.5 Hybrid and Doping of MOFs 21.5 Conclusions and Future Recommendations Acknowledgement References Chapter 22 High-Density Solids as Hydrogen Storage Materials 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Metal Borohydrides 22.2.1 Lithium Borohydride 22.2.2 Sodium Borohydride 22.2.3 Potassium Borohydride 22.3 Metal Alanates 22.3.1 Lithium Alanate 22.3.2 Sodium Alanate 22.4 Ammonia Boranes 22.5 Metal Amides 22.5.1 Lithium Amide 22.5.2 Sodium Amide 22.6 Amine Metal Borohydrides 22.6.1 Amine Lithium Borohydrides 22.6.2 Amine Magnesium Borohydrides 22.6.3 Amine Calcium Borohydrides 22.6.4 Amine Aluminium Borohydrides 22.7 Conclusion References Index EULA