Spacecraft Power Systems

The power systems of space vehicles have undergone significant development during the previous decade, and will continue to do so in the immediate future. Until now, except for the scattered results of conferences and a few publications with sketchy coverage, no single volume has covered the entire spectrum of the subject. Spacecraft Power Systems addresses every facet of electrical power system design, analyses, and operation with a level of detail found nowhere else. The book delivers wide coverage of the fundamentals of energy conversion, energy storage, power conditioning, energy management, and operational aspects that help engineers maintain a leading edge in the design of various systems. This volume provides the most recent data and procedures for designing an electrical power system that meets mission requirements at a minimum of cost and weight. This book evolved from courses taught by the author and from the author's deep involvement in many design and development programs at the General Electric Space Division and at Lockheed Martin Space Systems. 0849327865......Page 1 Preface......Page 8 Acknowledgment......Page 10 About the Book......Page 11 About the Author......Page 13 Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 14 Systems of Units and Conversion Factors......Page 21 Other Units and Conversions......Page 22 Space Flight Constants......Page 23 List of Chapters......Page 25 Contents......Page 27 Part A......Page 42 1.1 Introduction......Page 44 1.2.2 Attitude and Orbit Control System......Page 45 1.2.5 Thermal Control System......Page 46 1.3 Earth Orbit Classification......Page 47 1.3.1 Geostationary Orbit......Page 49 1.3.2 Geosynchronous Orbit......Page 50 1.3.4 Low Earth Orbit......Page 52 1.4 Orbit Mechanics......Page 53 1.5.3 Spin Stabilization......Page 54 1.5.4 Three-axis Stabilization......Page 55 1.6 Launch and Transfer Orbits......Page 56 1.8 Eclipse due to Earth......Page 57 1.8.1 Example......Page 61 1.9 Eclipse due to Moon......Page 62 1.10 Solar Flux......Page 63 1.11 Beta Angle......Page 64 1.12 Spacecraft Mass......Page 65 Reference......Page 66 2.2 Launch and Transfer Orbit Environment......Page 67 2.3.2 Magnetic Field......Page 68 2.3.3 Meteoroids and Debris......Page 69 2.3.4 Atomic Oxygen......Page 70 2.3.5 Charged Particles......Page 71 2.4 Van Allen Belts......Page 72 2.5 Solar Wind and Solar Flare......Page 75 2.6 Geomagnetic Storm......Page 77 2.8 Total Radiation Fluence......Page 78 References......Page 80 3.1 Introduction......Page 81 3.2 Primary Battery......Page 82 3.3 Fuel Cell......Page 83 3.4 Solar PV-Battery......Page 84 3.5 Solar Concentrator-Dynamic Power System......Page 86 3.6 Nuclear-Thermoelectric......Page 89 3.7 Nuclear or Chemical-Dynamic......Page 90 3.8.1 Thermo-Photovoltaic......Page 91 3.8.3 Thermionic......Page 92 3.9 Technology Options Compared......Page 93 3.10 System Voltage Options......Page 94 3.11 Scaling for Power Level......Page 97 References......Page 98 4.1.1 Solar Array......Page 99 4.1.2 Battery......Page 100 4.1.3 Power Regulation......Page 101 4.2.1 Direct Energy Transfer......Page 103 4.3 Fully Regulated Bus......Page 104 4.3.4 Battery......Page 105 4.3.8 Mode Controller......Page 106 4.3.9 Battery Bus......Page 107 4.4 Bus Voltage Control......Page 108 4.5.2 Digital Control......Page 110 4.6 Sun-Regulated Bus......Page 111 4.7 Fully Regulated Versus Sun-Regulated Bus......Page 112 4.8 Peak Power Tracking Bus......Page 114 4.9 Architecture Trades......Page 119 4.10 The International Space Station 160- to 120-V Bus......Page 120 4.11.1 100-V Bus......Page 124 4.11.2 70-V Bus......Page 125 4.12 Small Satellite Bus......Page 127 4.13 Micro-Satellite Bus......Page 130 References......Page 132 5.2 Solar Array Degradation......Page 133 5.3 Electrostatic Discharge in the Solar Array......Page 134 5.4 Damage to the Power Electronics......Page 136 5.5 Effects on other Components......Page 139 5.6 Mass Erosion under Atomic Oxygen......Page 140 5.8 Predicting Damage......Page 143 References......Page 145 6.1 Introduction......Page 146 6.2 Self-Derived Requirements......Page 147 6.3 System Specifications......Page 148 7.2 Spacecraft Level Trades......Page 152 7.3 Power System Level Trades......Page 154 7.3.1 PV Cell Trades......Page 155 7.3.2 Solar Array Trades......Page 157 7.3.4 Bus Voltage Trades......Page 158 7.3.5 Pyro Power Trades......Page 159 7.4 Load Power Profile......Page 160 7.5 Solar Array Sizing......Page 163 7.6 Battery Sizing......Page 165 7.7 Power Flow Analysis......Page 166 7.9 Worst-Case Error Margin......Page 168 7.10 Design Process Phases......Page 170 7.11 Factory-to-Orbit Events......Page 171 7.12 Power System Functions Over Life......Page 172 Part B......Page 174 8.2 Photovoltaic Cell......Page 176 8.3 PV Technologies......Page 178 8.3.1 Single-Crystal Silicon......Page 179 8.3.5 Amorphous......Page 181 8.4 Equivalent Electrical Circuit......Page 182 8.5 I-V and P-V Characteristics......Page 184 8.7 Back-Surface Illumination......Page 188 8.8.1 Rigid Panels......Page 189 8.8.2 Body Mounted Array......Page 191 8.8.4 Flexible Array......Page 192 8.8.5 Inflatable Arrays......Page 194 8.9.2 Sun Angle......Page 195 8.9.3 Temperature Effect......Page 196 8.9.4 Sun Acquisition......Page 199 8.9.5 Sun Tracking......Page 202 8.9.6 Peak Power Extraction......Page 203 8.9.7 Shadow Effect......Page 206 8.10 Array Design......Page 207 8.10.2 Radiation Damage......Page 210 8.10.3 Fluence Calculation......Page 216 8.10.4 Offsetting from Sun......Page 217 8.10.5 Magnetic Moment......Page 218 8.11 Advances in PV Technology......Page 219 8.12 Concentrator Array......Page 224 8.12.1 Stretched Lens Array......Page 227 8.12.2 Light Concentrating Panel......Page 229 8.12.3 Parabolic Concentrator......Page 232 References......Page 234 9.2 Electrochemical Cell......Page 236 9.3 Types of Battery......Page 238 9.3.1 Nickel Cadmium......Page 239 9.3.2 Nickel Hydrogen......Page 241 9.3.3 Nickel Metal Hydride......Page 249 9.3.4 Lithium-Ion......Page 250 9.3.5 Lithium Polymer......Page 253 9.4 Electrical Circuit Model......Page 254 9.5.1 Charge/Discharge......Page 255 9.5.3 Charge Efficiency......Page 258 9.5.4 Energy Efficiency......Page 259 9.5.6 Self-Discharge......Page 260 9.5.7 Self-Heating......Page 262 9.6 Cycle Life......Page 265 9.7 Burst Power Capability......Page 268 9.9 Battery Design......Page 269 9.10 Launch and Ascent Power......Page 275 9.11 Thermal Design......Page 276 9.11.1 Flat Pack......Page 278 9.12 Safety Considerations......Page 279 9.13 Charge Regulation......Page 281 9.13.2 Single Charge Rate......Page 283 9.14 Battery Management......Page 284 9.15 Dynamic Model......Page 286 9.16 Cycle Life Model......Page 289 9.18 Advances in Battery Technologies......Page 292 References......Page 294 10.2 Switching Devices......Page 296 10.3 Shunt Regulator......Page 298 10.3.1 Full and Partial Shunts......Page 299 10.3.2 Linear and PWM Shunts......Page 300 10.3.4 Multistage PWM Shunt......Page 302 10.3.5 Polyphase PWM Shunt......Page 303 10.4.1 Full Versus Partial Shunts......Page 304 10.4.3 Typical Shunt Circuit Design......Page 305 10.5 Bus Ripple Filter Design......Page 306 10.6.1 Battery Charge (Buck) Converter......Page 307 10.6.2 Battery Discharge (Boost) Converter......Page 311 10.6.3 Buck-Boost Converter......Page 312 10.6.4 Flyback Converter (Buck or Boost)......Page 313 10.6.5 Transformer Coupled Forward Converter......Page 314 10.6.8 Resonant Converter......Page 315 10.6.9 Multiple Output Converter......Page 316 10.6.10 Load Power Converter......Page 317 10.6.11 Voltage and Current Regulators......Page 318 10.7 Magnetics......Page 320 10.7.1 Power Losses in Core and Coil......Page 323 10.7.2 Inductor Design......Page 325 10.7.3 Transformer Design......Page 327 10.8 Design for Maximum Efficiency......Page 329 References......Page 332 11.2 Ampacity of Wires......Page 334 11.3 R-L-C Parameters......Page 335 11.4 Conductor Materials......Page 338 11.6 Connectors......Page 340 11.7 Harness Mass Minimization......Page 342 11.7.1 Example......Page 344 11.8 Harness Design Process......Page 345 11.10 Fuse Protection......Page 347 11.10.1 Fuse rating......Page 350 11.10.2 Types of Fuse......Page 352 11.10.3 Fuse Characteristics......Page 353 11.10.4 Fuse Derating......Page 355 11.10.6 Redundant and Parallel Fuses......Page 356 11.10.7 Fuse Testing......Page 357 11.11 Remote Power Controllers......Page 358 11.12 Early Fault Detection......Page 359 12.2 Solar Array Drive......Page 360 12.3.1 Electro-Explosive Device......Page 363 12.3.2 Laser-Initiated Deployment......Page 364 12.4 Deployment Controller......Page 365 12.5.3 Thermistor......Page 367 12.6 Relays......Page 368 12.7 BPM and BCVM......Page 369 12.9.1 Shunt......Page 371 12.9.3 Magnetic Amplifier......Page 372 12.10.2 Metalized Polypropylene Capacitor......Page 373 12.11 Filters......Page 374 12.12 Telemetry and Commands......Page 375 12.13 Electronic Packaging......Page 377 12.14 Radiation Shield......Page 378 12.14.1 Example of Radiation Shield Design......Page 380 12.15 EMI Shield......Page 381 Part C......Page 386 13.1 Introduction......Page 388 13.2 Energy Balance Analysis......Page 390 13.3.1 Battery Module......Page 391 13.3.2 Solar Array Module......Page 395 13.3.5 Output Format......Page 396 13.4 Energy Balance Simulation Runs......Page 397 13.4.1 On-Orbit Simulation......Page 398 13.4.2 Transfer Orbit Simulation......Page 399 13.4.3 Transfer Orbit Load Budget......Page 402 13.4.4 Launch and Ascent Simulation......Page 403 13.5 Battery State of Health Monitoring......Page 404 13.6 Battery Latch-up in Sun-Regulated Bus......Page 406 References......Page 408 14.2 Bus Impedance and System Stiffness......Page 409 14.2 Voltage Regulation and Transients......Page 412 14.4 High-Frequency Ripples......Page 415 14.5 Ripple Measurement......Page 417 14.7 Minor Fuse Blow Cross-Talk......Page 419 14.7.1 Example......Page 420 14.8 Major Fuse Blow Transient......Page 421 14.9 Stability and Bus Impedance......Page 423 14.10 The dynamic Stability of a Control System......Page 427 14.11 Dynamic Simulation Model......Page 429 14.11.1 Solar Array Model......Page 430 14.11.2 Other Component Models......Page 432 14.12 Simulation Runs......Page 433 References......Page 434 15.2 Sources of EMI......Page 435 15.2.2 Radiated EMI......Page 436 15.3 Modes of Coupling......Page 438 15.4 EMI/EMC Specifications......Page 444 15.5 EMI Suppression Methods......Page 448 15.5.2 Grounding......Page 449 15.5.3 Cable Shielding......Page 450 15.5.4 Bonding......Page 451 15.6 Common Mode EMI......Page 452 15.7 Broadband EMI......Page 453 15.8 Commercial Off-the-Shelf Equipment......Page 454 15.8.1 EMI Requirements in Commercial Equipment......Page 455 15.8.2 NASA Versus Commercial Test Methods......Page 456 15.8.3 Testing COTS for Space Compliance......Page 457 15.9 Electromagnetic Pulse/Nuclear Threat......Page 458 16.2 ESD in GEO......Page 462 16.3 ESD in LEO......Page 463 16.4 Dielectric Breakdown......Page 464 16.5 ESD Entry Points......Page 465 16.6 Effect of ESD......Page 466 16.7 ESD Mitigation......Page 467 16.8 ESD Control in Solar Array......Page 468 16.9 Part Sensitivity......Page 470 Reference......Page 471 17.1 Introduction......Page 472 17.2 Random Failures......Page 474 17.4 Fundamental Theorems of Reliability......Page 475 17.5 Series-Parallel Reliability......Page 476 17.5.1 Examples......Page 477 17.6 Redundancies......Page 480 17.6.1 Active n for (n - 1) Units......Page 481 17.6.3 Dormant n and Active m Units......Page 482 17.6.4 Shared Versus Separate Battery Chargers......Page 483 17.6.5 Diode O-Ring for Active Redundancy......Page 484 17.7 Failure Rate Statistics......Page 485 17.8 MIL-HDBK-217......Page 486 17.9 Parts-Count Method of Reliability Estimate......Page 487 17.10 Derating for Reliability......Page 488 17.11.1 Example......Page 489 17.13 Non-Redundant Components......Page 490 17.14 Example of Reliability Calculation......Page 491 18.2 Test Limits......Page 492 18.2.5 Temperature Location......Page 496 18.3.2 Leak......Page 497 18.3.7 Acoustic......Page 498 18.4 Solar Cell Tests......Page 499 18.6 Power System Tests......Page 500 18.6.1 Solar Array......Page 501 18.6.2 Solar Array Drive......Page 503 18.6.3 Battery Assembly......Page 504 18.6.5 Bus Impedance and Stability......Page 505 18.7.2 Electrical Power System Test......Page 506 18.8 Test Points......Page 507 18.10 Launch Site Testing......Page 508 Part D......Page 512 19.1 Introduction......Page 514 19.2 Temperature in Deep Space......Page 516 19.4 Mercury Mission......Page 519 19.5 Near-Sun Mission......Page 521 19.6 Mars Mission......Page 522 19.7 Missions to Jupiter and Saturn......Page 525 19.8 Deep Space Missions......Page 527 References......Page 529 20.1 Introduction......Page 530 20.2 Thermoelectric Fundamentals......Page 531 20.2.1 Single-Stage Unicouple......Page 533 20.2.2 Single-Stage Multicouple......Page 534 20.2.4 RTG Assembly......Page 535 20.3 Electrical Model of RTG......Page 536 20.4 Maximum Power Transfer......Page 537 20.5 The Effect of Temperature and Aging......Page 538 20.7 Segmented TECs......Page 541 20.8 Advanced RTGs......Page 542 20.9 Thermoelectric Cooler......Page 544 References......Page 545 21.1 Introduction......Page 546 21.2.1 Stirling Engine......Page 549 21.3 Electromechanical Energy Conversion......Page 551 21.4.1 Brief Description of Each Machine......Page 553 21.4.4 Voltage Regulation and Field Excitation......Page 556 21.4.5 Speed and Frequency Limitations......Page 557 References......Page 558 22.1 Introduction......Page 559 22.2 High-Voltage PV Array......Page 560 22.3 High-Power Nuclear TEC......Page 561 22.4.1 Paschen Breakdown Voltage......Page 565 22.4.2 Dielectric Stress Concentration......Page 566 22.4.3 Corona Degradation......Page 567 22.4.5 Plasma and Charged Particles......Page 570 22.4.6 Temperature Extremes......Page 575 22.4.7 Design Guidelines......Page 576 22.5 High-Voltage Direct Current......Page 577 22.6 Alternating Current Versus Direct Current......Page 578 22.7 High-Frequency Alternating Current......Page 580 22.7.1 20-kHz Cable......Page 582 22.7.2 EMI in 20-kHz Alternating Current......Page 583 22.8 High-Power Components......Page 584 22.8.1 Rotary Power Transfer......Page 585 22.8.2 Switching and Protection......Page 586 22.8.3 Semiconducting Devices......Page 588 22.8.5 Power Converters......Page 589 22.8.6 Transformer and Inductor......Page 590 22.9 Very-High-Voltage System......Page 591 22.10 Repetitive Pulse Power......Page 593 22.11 Multi-Megawatt Burst-Power......Page 596 22.12 High-Temperature Components......Page 602 References......Page 606 23.1 Introduction......Page 607 23.2 Specific Impulse......Page 609 23.3.2 Hydrazine Arcjet......Page 611 23.3.3 Ion Thruster......Page 612 23.3.4 Stationary Plasma Thruster......Page 615 23.3.5 Magneto-Hydrodynamic......Page 616 23.4 Performance Comparison......Page 617 23.5 Solar PV Propulsion......Page 619 23.6 Solar Thermal Propulsion......Page 621 23.7 Nuclear Power Propulsion......Page 622 23.8 Microwave Beam Propulsion......Page 623 23.9 Tether Power Propulsion......Page 624 23.9.3 Keeping the Space Station Afloat......Page 630 References......Page 631 24.1 Introduction......Page 632 24.2 Electrochemistry of a Fuel Cell......Page 633 24.3 Electrical Performance......Page 634 24.4 Types of Fuel Cells......Page 637 24.5 Regenerative Fuel Cells......Page 639 24.6 RFCs for Space Colonies......Page 640 24.7 RFCs for Satellites......Page 641 24.8 Commercial Fuel Cells......Page 643 References......Page 644 25.1 Introduction......Page 645 25.2 Photovoltaic-Flywheel Power System......Page 647 25.3 Flywheel System Components......Page 648 25.3.3 Magnetic Bearings......Page 649 25.3.6 Sensors......Page 651 25.4 Power and Momentum Management Electronics......Page 653 25.5 Energy and Stress Relations......Page 654 25.6 Flywheel Application Example......Page 656 25.7 Integrated Energy and Momentum Storage......Page 658 25.7.1 Energy and Momentum Relations......Page 660 25.7.2 Energy Depletion Constraints......Page 661 25.8 Energy-Momentum Wheel Example......Page 663 25.8.1 Providing Launch and Ascent Power......Page 664 25.8.2 Replacing Batteries and Reaction Wheels with IEMS......Page 665 25.9 Electrical Machine Options......Page 666 25.9.1 Synchronous Machines......Page 667 25.9.2 Induction Machine......Page 668 25.9.3 Direct Current Machine......Page 669 25.10 Motor-Generator Design Issues......Page 670 25.10.1 Constant Torque Versus Constant Power Design......Page 671 25.11 Magnetic Bearings Design Issues......Page 672 25.11.2 High-Speed Bearings......Page 673 25.12 Flywheel System Controller......Page 674 25.13 NASA Flywheel Program......Page 676 References......Page 679 26.2 Magnetic Energy Storage......Page 681 26.3 Critical J, B, and T......Page 684 26.5 System Configuration......Page 687 26.6 Cryogenic Temperature......Page 689 26.7.1 Semiconductors......Page 690 26.7.2 Magnetics......Page 691 26.7.4 Resistors......Page 692 References......Page 693 27.1 Introduction......Page 694 27.2 Microwave Beam......Page 695 27.4 Space-to-Ground Power......Page 696 27.5 Solar Dynamic Power Generation......Page 699 27.6 Powersat Developments......Page 701 References......Page 702 A......Page 704 B......Page 705 C......Page 707 D......Page 708 E......Page 710 F......Page 713 G......Page 714 H......Page 715 I......Page 716 L......Page 718 M......Page 719 N......Page 721 O......Page 722 P......Page 723 R......Page 725 S......Page 727 T......Page 730 V......Page 731 Z......Page 732 Back cover......Page 734 "Spacecraft Power Systems addresses every facet of electrical power system design, analyses, and operation with a level of detail found nowhere else. The book delivers wide coverage of the fundamentals of energy conversion, energy storage, power conditioning, energy management, and operational aspects that help engineers maintain a leading edge in the design of various systems. This volume provides the most recent data and procedures for designing electrical power systems that meet mission requirements at a minimum of cost and weight."--Jacket